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THE MICROSCOPY 



OF 



VEGETABLE FOODS 



WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO 



THE DETECTION OF ADULTERATION AND THE 
DIAGNOSIS OF MIXTURES 



BY i 

ANDREW L .-"' ' WINTON, Ph.D. 

M 

In Charge of the Analytical Laboratory of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station 

Instructor in Proximate Organic Analysis in the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University 
WITH THE COLLABORATION OF 

Dr. JOSEF MOELLER 

Professor of Pharmacology, and Head of the Pharmacological Institute of the 
University of Graz 



WITH 589 ILLUSTRATIONS 



FIRST EDITION 
FIRST THOUSAND 



NEW YORK 

JOHN WILEY & SONS 

London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited 

1906 



^ 



LIBRARY of eONGRESS 
Two OODIM R6MN0 

FEB H ii^Ot) 

13 1 f fj 

COPY A, 



Copyright, iqo6 

BY 

ANDREW L. WINTON 
Entered at Stationers' Hall 



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X"^.^^ 



A 



(9 



Vf 



ROBERT DKUMMOND, PRINTBR, NEW YOKK 



PREFACE. 



The development of vegetable histology, both as a pure and an 
applied science, has been largely in the hands of continental investi- 
gators. A generation ago Sachs, De Bary, and other histologists labored 
on the purely scientific problems; since then Vogl, Moeller, Tschirch, 
T. F. Hanausek, Oesterle, Planchon, Collin, Hohnel, Mace, and other 
technical microscopists, without neglecting research problems, have 
developed microscopical methods for the diagnosis of foods, drugs, and 
fibers which rank with chemical methods in practical importance. 

The extensive literature in the German and French languages on 
the microscopy of foods includes several comprehensive works devoted 
exclusively to the subject, a still greater number covering either the 
wider range of foods and drugs or hmited to special fields, such as cereal 
products and cattle foods, as well as numerous papers in botanical, phar- 
maceutical, and technical journals. 

In Enghsh the dearth of hterature on a subject of such scientific and 
technical importance is noteworthy. No single work devoted exclu- 
sively to food microscopy has hitherto appeared, although Hassall, Leach, 
and some other analysts, have described microscopical as well as chem- 
ical methods, and other authors, notably Greenish, Kraemer, and Jel- 
liffe, have treated on the microscopy of both foods and drugs. 

The present work is designed for the use of the food analyst, the 
agricultural chemist, the pharmacist, and others engaged in the exami- 
nation of foods, as well as the physician who may be called upon to 
identify vegetable substances in stomach contents and faeces. It aims to 
be comprehensive, covering the important vegetable foods for man and 
cattle, and at the same time sufiiciently concise for ready reference. 

The idea that a scientific grounding is essential for practical work is 
paramount throughout. Only by a systematic study of each product 



iv PREFACE. 

from the morphological and physiological standpoint can one hope to 
develop keen observation and secure lasting impressions. 

The work is closely affiliated with the second edition of Moeller's 
"Mikroskopie der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel," which appeared a few 
months since with the collaboration of the writer. The descriptions of 
the individual leaves, flowers, barks, roots, and edible fungi, with few 
exceptions, are translations of Professor Moeller's text, and no less than 
350 cuts are also his. It is vdth the deepest gratitude that the writer 
acknowledges this generous cooperation of his honored teacher and 
friend. Had it not been for Professor Moeller's unselfish aid, the writer 
would never have undertaken investigations in this field, much less a 
comprehensive treatise. 

Valuable cuts have been borrowed from the following well-known 
authors: Berg, Collin and Perrot, Frank, Gilg, Hager, Halstrom, T. F. 
Hanausek, Hartig, Hassall, Kny, Leach, Luerssen, Malfatti, A. Meyer, 
Mez, R. Miiller, Nees, Nobbe, Planchon and Collin, Sachs, Schimper, 
Schumann, Tschirch, Tschirch and Oesterle, Tulasne, Vilhers and Col- 
lin, Vogl, Warburg, and Wittmack and Buchwald. Numerous cuts, 
made from the writer's drawings for pubHcations of the Connecticut 
Agricultural Experiment Station, are reproduced with the kind permission 
of that institution. Acknowledgment for the use of cuts is also due 
the following publishers: Julius Springer, Berlin (publisher of Moeller's 
Mikroskopie); The Clarendon Press, Oxford; Octave Doin, Paris; 
Wm. Engelmann, Leipsig; Ferdinand Enke, Stuttgart; Gustav Fischer, 
Jena; Carl Gerold's Sohn, Vienna; H. Haessell, Leipsig; Alfred Holder, 
Vienna; A. Joanin & Cie., Paris; Longmans, Green, & Co., London; 
Paul Parey, Berlin; Chr. Herm. Tauchnitz, Leipsig; Urban & Schwarz- 
enberg, Berlin and Vienna; J. J. Weber, Leipsig; Weidmannsche Buch- 
handlung, Berlin. Permission to reproduce Fig. 16 was kindly granted 
by Mr. E. Goodwin Clayton, F.I.C., F.C.S., consulting chemist, 32 Holborn 
Viaduct, London, England. The larger part of Professor Moeller's and 
the writer's dravdngs were reproduced on wood by F. X. Matolony of 
Vienna. 

In the preparation of the text the works of the leading authors have 
been consulted , and credit has frequently been given for important dis- 
coveries, although so far as possible the writer has based his descriptions 
on his own observations. The descriptions of cucurbitaceous fruits and 
three excellent cuts illustrating the structure of the pumpkin were con- 
tributed by Miss Kate G. Barber. 



PREF/tCE, V 

The bibliographies throughout the work and the glossary are largely 
the work of my wife, who has devoted much time and thought to other 
details. 

Professor Moeller's analytical key to commercial starches will be found 
a reliable guide in diagnosis. It is hoped the writer's keys to cereals, 
cruciferous seeds, umbelliferous fruits, legumes, and spices will also 
prove of value, although they are not universally applicable since many 
materials lack certain histological elements present in the original prod- 
uct. 

The indulgence of the reader is asked for omissions of which the 
writer is painfully aware, and for errors which doubtless v^U be detected. 

New Haven, Conn., 

November i, 1905. 



CONTENTS. 



PART I. 

PRELIMINARY: EQUIPMENT, METHODS, AND GENERAL 

PRINCIPLES. 

PAGB 

INTRODUCTION 3 

APPARATUS 6 

REAGENTS 8 

COLLECTIONS 11 

PREPARATION OF MATERIALS FOR EXAMINATION 12 

Mechanical Preparation 12 

Treatment with Reagents 15 

THE PRINCIPAL HISTOLOGICAL ELEMENTS 20 

Tissues 20 

Cell-contents 23 

MORPHOLOGY OF ORGANS 28 

The Leaf 28 

The Flower 30 

The Fruit 33 

Pericarp 33 

Seed 35 

The Stem 38 

Bark 40 

Wood 41 

The Root 44 



PART II. 
GRAIN: ITS PRODUCTS AND IMPURITIES. 

GRAIN 49 

Flour and Meal 49 

Impurities and Adulterants 49 

Methods of Examination 52 

vii 



Vlll CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Bread 56 

Cattle Foods 57 

Methods of Examination 59 

Cereals (Giaminccc) 60 

Microscopic Characters 62 

Analytical Keys 63 

"Wheat (Triiicum) 65 

Spelt (Triticum sativum var. Spelta) 73 

Emmer {Triticum sativum, var. dicoccum) 75 

One-grained Wheat {Triticum monococcum) 76 

Rye {Secale cereale) 77 

Barley {Hordeum sativum) 80 

Maize {Zea Mays) 86 

Broom Corn {Andropogon Sorghum var. tcchnicus) 97 

Sugar Sorghum {Andropogon Sorghum var. saccharatus) 103 

Kaffir Corn {Andropogon Sorghum) 104 

• Durrha {Andropogon Sorghum var. durra) 104 

Rice {Oryza sativa) 105 

Oats {Avena sativa) iii 

Common Millet {Panicum miliaceum) -. 116 

German Millet {Setaria Italica=S. panis) 118 

Green Foxtail {Setaria viridis = Chcetochloa viridis) 118 

Yellow Foxtail {Setaria glauca = Chcetochloa glauca) 124 

Darnel {Lolium temuleniuni) 125 

Chess {Bromus secalinus) 1 30 

Buckwheats {Polygonacece) 132 

Common Buckwheat {Fagopyrum esculentum) 132 

Tartary Buckwheat {Fagopyrum Tartar icum) 138 

Black Bindweed {Polygonum Convolvulus) 138 

Other Polygonaceous Seeds 144 

WEE»- SEEDS 145 

Screenings 145 

European 145 

American. 146 

Analyses 147 

Methods of Examination 148 

Caryophyllaceous Seeds {Caryophyllacca) 148 

Cockle {Agrostemma Githago). 14S 

Cow Herb {Vaccaria parviflora = Saponaria Vaccaria) 151 

Soapwort {Saponaria officinalis) 151 

Spurrey {Spergula arvensis) 152 

Ranunculaceous Seeds {Ranunculacece) 152 

Buttercup Fruit {Ranunculus arvensis) 153 

Adonis Fruit {Adonis ccstivalis, A. Flammea) 154 

Larkspur Seed {Delphinium Consolida) 155 

Louse Seed {Delphinium Staphysagria) 155 

Black Caraway {Nigella arvensis) 1 56 

Miscellaneous Weed Seeds 156 

Cow Wheat {Melampyrum arvense) 156 

Bindweed {Convolvulus arvensis) 157 



CONTENTS. IX 

PAGE 

Wild Carrot (Daucus Carota) 15^ 

Hollow Seed {Bijora radians) 159 

Cornflower (Centaurea Cyanus) 1 60 

Cleavers {Galium) 161 

Plantain {Plantago major, P. lanceolata) 163 

FUNGUS IMPURITIES 164 

Ergot {Ciaviceps purpurea) 164 

Smuts {JJsiilago, Tillctia, etc.) 165 



PART III. 
OIL SEEDS AND OIL CAKES. 

OIL SEEDS 169 

Oil-seed Products 169 

Methods of Examination 170 

CruciFe;rous SEEds (CrucifercE) 172 

Microscopic Characters 1 73 

Analytical Key 1 74 

White Mustard {Sinapis alba) 176 

Black Mustard {Brassica nigra) 180 

Sarepta Mustard {Brassica Besseriana) 1 83 

Charlock {Brassica Sinapistrum = Sinapis arvensis) 184 

Common Rape {Brassica Napus) 185 

German Rape {Brassica Rapa) 187 

Indian Colza {Brassica campestris var. Sarson) 187 

Brown Indian Rape {Brassica Napus var. dichotoma) 188 

Indian Mustard {Brassica juncea) 188 

Palai Rape {Brassica rugosa) 188 

Dissected Mustard {Brassica dissecia) 189 

Eruca {Eruca saliva) 189 

False Flax {Camclina saiiva) 189 

Hedge Mustard {Sisymbrium officinale, S. Sophia, etc.) . 191 

Shepherd's Purse {Capsella Bursa-Pastoris) 191 

Wild Peppergrass {Lepidium campestre, L. sativum) 192 

Field Pennycress {Thlaspi arvense) 192 

Treacle Mustard {Erysimum orienkile) 192 

Wild Radish {Raphanus Raphanistrum) i93 

Winter Cress {Barbarea vulgaris). i93 

Composite Oil Fruits {Composite) i93 

Sunflower {Helianthus annuus) ^94 

Madia Seed {Madia sativa) ^97 

Niger Seed {Guizotia Abyssinica = G. olcifera). 200 

MiscEi^LANEous Oil Seeds. . . . .- 2°^ 

Linseed {Linum usitatissimum) 202 

Cottonseed {Gossypium herbacejim) 205 

Kapok Seed {Ceibo pentandra = Eriodendron anfractuosicm) 211 



CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Hemp Seed {Cannabis sativa) 212 

Sesame Seed (Scsamum Indicum) 217 

Castor Bean {Ricinus communis) 220 

Candlenut {Aleurites triloba = A. Moluccana) 222 

Poppy Seed (Papaver somnijerum) 223 

Olive {Olea Europea) 226 



PART IV. 

LEGUMES. 

LEGUMES {LeguminoscE) 233 

Microscopic Characters 233 

Analytical Key 235 

Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) 238 

Spanish Bean {Phaseolus muliiflorus) 240 

Adzuki Bean {Phaseolus Mungo, var. glaber) 241 

Lima Bean {Pliaseolus lunatus) 241 

Pea {Pisii;n arvense, P. sativum) 242 

Lentil {Lens esculenta =Ervum Lens) 245 

China Bean {Vigna Catjang = V. Sinensis = Dolichos Sinensis) 247 

Soy Bean {Glycine hispida==Soja hispida) 248 

Egyptian Bean {Dolichos Lablab = Lablab vulgaris) 249 

Horse Bean {Faba vulgaris =^ Vicia Faba) 250 

Spring Vetch {Vicia sativa) 251 

Winter Vetch {Vicia villosa) 252 

Hairy Vetch {Vicia hirsuia) 252 

Yellow Lupine {Lupinus luteus) 253 

White Lupine {Lupinus albus) 255 

Blue Lupine {Lupinus angustifolius) 255 

Chick Pea {Cicer arietinuni) 256 

Soudan Coffee {Parkia Africana, P. Roxburgii) 257 

Jack Bean {Canavalia ensiformis, C. obtusifolia) 258 

Fenugreek {Trigonella Foenum-Crcecum) : 259 

Coffee Cassia {Cassia occidentalis) 262 

Astragalus {Astragalus bczticus) 264 

Lucerne {Medicago sativa) 265 

Peanut {Arachis hypogcsa) 266 

Tonka Bean {Coumarouna odorata = Di pteryx odoraia, etc.) 273 

Carob Bean {Ceratonia Siliqua) 275 



CONTENTS. XI 

PART V. 
NUTS. 

PAGB 

NUTS 28i 

Palm P'ruits {Palmaz) 281 

Cocoanut {Cocos nucifera) 281 

Palm-nut {ElcBts Guineensis) 290 

Wax-palm (Corypha ceri}era = Copernica cerifera) 292 

Ivory-nut (Phytelephas macrocarpa, etc.) 293 

Polynesian Ivory-nut (Coclococcus) 295 

WaIvNUTs (Juglandacecc) 295 

European Walnut (Juglans regia) 295 

Black Walnut (Juglans nigra) 298 

Butternut (Juglans cinerea) 298 

Pecan Nut (Carya olivccformis) 298 

Hickory-nut (Carya alba) 299 

Cup Nuts (Cupulijera;) 299 

Chestnut (Castanea saliva, etc.) 299 

Acorn (Quercus) 302 

Beech-nut (Fagus sylvatica, F. ferriiginea) 307 

Hazelnut (Corylus) 309 

Miscellaneous Nuts 312 

Brazil-nut (Bertholletia excelsa) 312 

Pistachio-nut (Pistacia vera) 315 

Pine-nut (Pinus Pinea, P. Cemhra) 316 



PART VI. 

FRUIT AND FRUIT PRODUCTS. 

FRUIT 319 

Fruit Products 319 

Adulterants 319 

Methods of Examination 320 

Rosaceous Fruits (Rosacece) 323 

Apple (Pyrus Mains) 323 

Pear (Pyrus communis) 328 

Quince (Cydonia vulgaris = Pyrus Cydonia) 331 

Almond (Prunus amygdalus) 333 

Peach (Prunus Persica) 337 

Apricot (Prunus Armeniaca) 339 

Plum (Prunus domestica, P. triflora) 340 

Cherry (Prunus avium, P. cerasus) 341 

Rose Fruit (Rosa canina) 342 

Strawberry (Fragaria) 343 



xii CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Red Raspberry (Rubus IdcBus, etc.) 349 

Black Raspberry {Rubus occidentalis) 354 

Blackberry {Rubus fruiicosus, etc.) 354 

Saxifr.^gaceous Fruits {Saxijragaceai) 357 

Red Currant {Ribes rubrum) 357 

Black Currant {Ribes nigrum) 362 

Gooseberry {Ribes Grossularia, etc.) 363 

Ericaceous Fruits {Ericacece) 366 

Cranberry {Vaccinium macrocarpon, etc.) 366 

Blueberry {Vaccinium Myrtillus, etc.) 370 

Huckleberry {Gaylussacia resinosa) 373 

Citrus Fruits {Rutacece) 376 

Orange {Citrus Aurantium) 37^ 

Lemon {Citrus medica, var. Limon) 381 

Citron {Citrus medica, var. genuina) 381 

Miscellaneous Fruits 382 

Grape {Vitis vinifera) • 382 

Fig {Ficus Carica) 386 

Date (Phcenix dactylifera) 39° 

Banana {Miisa sapientum) 393 

Pineapple {A7ia}iassa sativa) 395 



PART VII. 

VEGETABLES. 

VEGETABLES 401 

Cucurbit Fruits {Cucurbitacece) 401 

Pumpkin {Cucurbita Pepo) 402 

Squash {Cucurbita maxima) 406 

Cucumber {Cucumis sativus) 406 

Muskmelon {Cucumis Melo) 407 

Watermelon {Citrullus vulgaris) 408 

SOLANACEOUS Fruits {Solanacea;) 410 

Tomato {Solanum Lyco per sicum = Ly coper sictmi esculcntum) 410 

Tubers and Roots 4^4 

Potato {Solanum tuberosum) 414 

Japanese Potato {Stachys Sieboldii) 415 

Jerusalem Artichoke {Helianthus tuberosus) 416 

Beet {Beta vulgaris) 417 

Carrot {Daucus Carota) 418 

Turnip {Brassica Rapa) 419 

Fungi 419 

Truffles {Tuber) 420 

Morels {Morchella, Gymitra, Helvclla) 422 

Mushrooms {Psalliota, Boletus) , 423 



CONTENTS. Xiii 

PART VIII. 

ALK.\LOIDAL PRODUCTS AND THEIR SUBSTITUTES. 

PAGE 

ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS 427 

Coffee (Coffea Arabica) 427 

Liberian Coffee {Coffea Liberica) ■ 438 

Chicory (Chicorium Intybus) 4-78 

Dandelion {Leontodon Taraxacum) 440 

Cocoa Bean {Thcobroma Cacao) 442 

Guarana {Paullinia sorbilis) 4^1 

Kola Nut {Cola acuminata) 4r2 

Tea {Camellia Thca) 4^2 

Gromwell Leaves {Lithospermum officinale) 4^8 

Willow Herb Leaves {Epilobium angustijolium=Chamaenerium angusti- 

folium) 4rQ 

Willow Leaves {Salix) 451 

Ash Leaves {Fraxinus sp.) 462 

Rowan Leaves {Sorbus Aucuparia = Pyrus Aucuparia) 463 

Mulberry Leaves {Morus alba, M. nigra) 464 

Coffee Leaves {Coffea Arabica) 466 

Camellia Leaves {Camellia Japonica) 467 

Cherry Leaves {Prunus avium) 468 

Sloe Leaves {Prunus spinosa) 469 

Rose Leaves {Rosa canina, etc.) 470 

Strawberry Leaves {Fragaria vesca) 471 

Meadowsweet Leaves {Spircea Ulmaria) 473 

Wistaria Leaves {Wistaria Sinensis = Kraunhia flonbunda) 475 

Hydrangea Leaves {Hydrangea Hortensia) 476 

Maple Leaves {Acer N egundo = N egundo frcxinijolium) 477 

Oak Leaves {Quercus pedunculata, Q. sessihflora) 477 

Akebia Leaves {Akebia qumata) 478 

Blueberry Leaves {Vaccinium Myrtillus) 480 

Caucasian Tea {Vaccinium Arctostaphylos) 481 

Other Tea Substitutes 483 

Mate {Ilex Paraguariensis) 483 

Coca {Erythroxylon Coca) 485 

Tobacco {Nicotiana Tabacum, N. rustica) 486 



xiv CONTENTS. 

PART IX. 
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 

PAGE 

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS 493 

Impurities 493 

Adulterants 494 

Methods of Examination 496 

Analytical Key 498 

Condimental Cattle and Poultry Foods 499 

Methods of Examination 500 

PiPERACEOUs Fruits (Piperacece) 502 

Pepper {Piper nigrum) ; . . 502 

Long Pepper {Piper ojficinarum, P. longum) 511 

Cubebs {Piper Cubeba) 513 

SoLANACEOus Fruits {Solanacece) 515 

Paprika {Capsicum) 515 

Cayenne Pepper {Capsicum jastigiatum, etc.) 523 

Myrtaceous Fruits {MyrtacecE) 526 

Allspice {Pimenta officinalis, etc.) 526 

Nutmegs and Mace {Myristicacecc) 531 

True Nutmeg and Mace {Myristica jragrans) 531 

Macassar Nutmeg and Mace {Myristica argentea) 540 

Bombay Mace {Myristica Malabarica) 540 

Cardamoms {Zingiberacece) 542 

Malabar Cardamom {Elettaria Cardamomum, Amomutn Cardamomum, 

etc.) 542 

Ceylon Cardamom {Elettaria Cardamomum) 547 

UmbeLUFEROUS Fruits {Umbellifera;) 549 

Comparative Histology of Umbelliferous Fruits 550 

Analytical Key 551 

Fennel {Foeniculum capillaceum) 552 

Caraway {Carum Carvi) 555 

Anise {Pimpinella Anisum) 558 

Cumjn {Cuininum Cyminum) 560 

Coriander {Coriandrum sativum) 562 

Dill {Anethum graveolens) 564 

Celery Seed {Apium graveolens) 565 

Miscellaneous Fruits and Seeds 566 

Star-anise {Illicium verum) 566 

Shikimi {Illicium religiosum) 572 

Vanilla {Vanilla planifoUa) 573 

Vanillon {Vanilla pompona) 578 

Bayberry {Laurus nobilis) 579 

Juniper Berry {Juniperus communis) 582 

Barks 585 

Cassia {Cinnarnomum) 585 

Cassia Buds {Cinnarnomum Cassia) 591 

Ceylon Cinnamon {Cmnamomum Ceylonicum) 593 



CONTENTS XV 

PAGE 

Clove Bark {DicypclUum caryophyllatum) 594 

Canella Bark (Canclla alba) 597 

Rhizomes 599 

Ginger (Zingiber officinale, etc.) 599 

Turmeric (Curcuma longa) 602 

Zedoary (Curcuma Zedoaria) 605 

Galangal (Alpinia officinarum, A. calcarata) 606 

Sweet Flag (Acorus Calamus) 608 

Leaves 610 

Sage (Salvia officinalis) 610 

Marjoram (Origanum Majorana) 612 

Savory (Satureja hortensis) 613 

Thyme (Thymus vulgaris) 615 

Hyssop. (Hyssopus officinalis) 615 

Bay-leaf (Laurus nobilis) 616 

Tarragon (Artemisia Dracuncnlus) 617 

Wormwood (Artemisia vulgaris) 619 

Sorrel (Rumcx scutatus) 621 

Flowers 622 

Saffron (Crocus sativiis) 623 

Marigold Flowers (Calendula officinalis) 627 

Saffiower (Carfhamus tinctorius) 629 

Cape Saffron (Lyperia crocea) 631 

South African Saffron (Tritonia aurea=Crocosma aurea=Babiana aurea). 632 

Maize Silk (Zea Mays) 632 

Cloves (Eugenia caryophyllata= Jambosa Caryopliyllus=Caryophylliis 

aromaticus) 632 

Clove Stems 636 

Clove Fruit 637 

Capers (Capparis spinosa) 639 



PART X. 

COMMERCIAL STARCHES. 

COMMERCIAL STARCHES 643 

Analytical Key 649 

Maize Starch (Zea Mays) 651 

Rice Starch (Oryza saliva) 652 

Wheat Starch (Triticum sativum) 653 

Buckwheat Starch (Fagopyrum csculentum) 654 

Leguminous Starches (Leguminosa) 655 

Chestnut Starch (Castanea vesca) 656 

Horse-chestnut Starch (ALsculus Hippocastanum) 657 

Bean-tree Starch (Castanospermum Ausiralc) 658 

Banana Starch (Musa) 658 



XVI CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Bread-fruit Starch {Ariocarpus incisa) 659 

Potato Starch {Solanum tuberosum) 659 

Maranta Starch or West India Arrowroot {Maranta arundinacea) 660 

Curcuma Starch or East India Arrowroot {Curcuma) 662 

Canna Starch or Queensland Arrowroot {Canna) 662 

Yam Starch or Guiana Arrowroot {Dioscorea) 663 

Cassava Starch {Manihot uiilissima, M. aipi) 664 

Sweet-potato Starch or Brazihan Arrowroot {Batatas edulis = Ipomoea 

Batatas) 665 

Arum Starch or Portland Arrowroot {Arutn) 666 

Tacca Starch or Tahiti Arrowroot {Tacca pinnutifida) 667 

Sago {Metroxylon, Sagus, etc.) 667 

Miscellaneous Starches 669 

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY 671 

GLOSSARY 675 

INDEX 685 



PART I. 

PRELIMINARY: EQUIPMENT, METHODS 
AND GENERAL PRINCIPLES, 



THE MICROSCOPY OF VEGETABLE FOODS. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The Microscopy of Vegetable Foods is an applied analytical 
science having for its purpose the identification of food products of vege- 
table origin by the microscopic structure and microchemical reactions 
of their tissues and cell-contents. 

It is a branch of Analytical Vegetable Histology, other important 
branches being the Microscopy of Drugs, or Microscopic Pharmacognosy^ 
and the Microscopy of Fibers. 

Preliminary Study. As the microscopy of foods, like the allied branches 
of analytical histology, is a department of applied botany, it cannot be 
properly taken up until after a course of instruction in the parent science, 
especially that part relating to the histology or microscopic anatomy of 
phanerogamic plants. To omit this is as irrational as to undertake the 
study of analytical chemistry without previous knowledge of general 
chemistry. 

This training in botany need not, however, be more than is given in a 
good high-school course with practical histological work, although a sup- 
plementary course in the histology of phanerogams is highly desirable. 

The student should begin his work in food microscopy with a sys- 
tematic study of the most important seeds, fruits, leaves, flowers, rootSy 
and barks used as foods or food adulterants. This work should include: 
(i) the macroscopic anatomy; (2) the histology as studied in transverse 
(less often longitudinal or tangential) sections ; (3) the histology as studied 
in surface preparations of the successive layers obtained by scraping or 
stripping; and (4) the microscopic characters of the powdered, pulped, or 
macerated material. Macroscopic preparations show the general nature 
and relative size of the parts; cross-sections, the number of layers, order 
of arrangement, and certain details of structure; surface mounts, the 
details of cell structure most useful in practical work; and mounts of 
the powdered material, much that is learned from surface mounts and in 



4 PRELIMINARY. 

addition the characters of the isolated cell-elements and cell-contents. 
The student who has not the time, apparatus, or technique for cutting 
careful sections can use permanent mounts of a collection, or can even 
depend on illustrations of such sections, but he should prepare his own 
mounts for the study of each material in surface view or powder form. 

After this general work, which is analogous to the study of the reac- 
tions of the several bases and acids in his course in analytical chemistry, 
the student is prepared to undertake the diagnosis of mixtures. In this 
work he will find that of some materials, such, for example, as ground 
coffee, he can pick out fragments large enough for cutting sections, or 
preparing surface mounts by scraping, but as a rule he must depend 
entirely on the microscopic appearance of the powder. His knowledge 
gained by his study of sections and surface mounts of standard material 
will, however, be invaluable to him in interpreting the results of his exami- 
nations of powders. 

The object of this book is to aid both the student and the practical 
worker, assuming that both are familiar with the general principles of 
elementary botany, vegetable histolog}^, and microtechnique, or at least 
are in a position to use intelligently reference works on these subjects. 

Relation to Chemical Analysis. Although the work of microscopic 
examination is distinctly botanical, its chief value is in conjunction with 
chemical analysis, and for this reason is more often undertaken by the 
analyst with a moderate knowledge of vegetable histology than by the 
professional botanist. Only in large institutions can the work be divided 
among specialists. 

Both analytical chemistry and analytical histology, although widely 
unlike in their processes, are used in solving problems relating to the 
nature or purity of powdered foods, drugs, and other products of vegetable 
origin. Sometimes one line of investigation alone is useful, sometimes 
the other, but often each throws some light on the problem, thus furnishing 
an indisputable chain of evidence. 

Analytical chemistry determines the amount of fiber, starch, protein, 
oil, etc.; analytical histology, the shape, size, reactions, and other char- 
acteristics of the cells and cell-contents. Analytical chemistry usually 
stops with the mere determination of the amount of chemical constituents ; 
analytical histology goes further, and names the seeds, roots, barks, or 
other vegetable products from which the material was prepared. Ana- 
lytical chemistry answers a question in scientific terms ; analytical histology 
in terms which all can understand. 



INTRODUCTION. 5 

In many cases a satisfactory idea of a material is gained only by fol- 
lowing out both lines of investigation. By chemical analysis we learn the 
percentage of protein, fiber, starch, e'tc, but not the ingredients from wliich 
they were derived; by microscopic analysis we learn the ingredients, 
but gain little idea of their proportion; but given the results of both 
analyses, we may often calculate approximately the percentage of the 
different materials present. 

If, for example, we find in ground cloves 5 per cent instead of 15 per 
cent of essential oil, and 40 per cent instead of 8 per cent of fiber, we know 
it is not pure cloves; if we find under the microscope a large amount of 
stone cells and other tissues of the cocoanut shell, we learn the adulterant. 
Knowing all this, and knowing the average percentage of volatile oil in 
cloves and of fiber in both cloves and cocoanut shells, we have the data 
for calculating roughly the percentage of each in the mixture. 

Mineral salts and other inorganic constituents of a mixture are iden- 
tified by chemical or microchemical tests, and the amounts present deter- 
mined by chemical methods. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.! 

Elementary Botany. 
Bergen: The Foundations of Botany. Boston, 1903. 
Bessey: Botany for High Schools and Colleges. New York, 1880. 
Leavitt: Outlines of Botany. New York. 

Structural Botany. 
Gray: Structural Botany. New York, 1880. 

Vegetable Histology. 
See p. 25. 

Microscopy of Drugs. 

Greenish: Foods and Drugs. London, 1903. 

Jelliffe: Introduction to Pharmacognosy. Philadelphia, 1904. 

Kraemer: a Course in Botany and Pharmacognosy. Philadelphia, 1902. 

Microscopy 0} Fibers. 
Mathews: The Textile Fibers. New York, 1904. 

Chemistry of Foods. 
Battershall: Food Adulteration and its Detection. New York, 1887. 
Bell: The Chemistry of Foods. London, 1881. 
Blyth: Foods, their Composition and Analysis. London, 1903. 

Hassall: Food, its Adulteration and the Methods for their Detection. London, 1876. 
Leach: Food Inspection and Analysis. New York, 1904. 
Leffmann and Beam : Select Methods of Food Analysis. Philadelphia, 1905. 
U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Chemistry, Bulletins 13, 46, and 65. 

^ Works in English. 



APPARATUS. 

It is beyond the province of this work to describe the construction of 
the microscope and microscopic apparatus, or give instructions for their 
care and use. Those who desire information of this nature are referred 
to the works named on p. 19 and the pamphlets issued by the leading 
makers of instruments. 

The hst of apparatus which follows is designed merely as a guide 
for the purchaser. 

Essential Apparatus. The apparatus described under this head is 
essential for the most elementary work in food microscopy; on the other 
hand, it is sufficient for verifying nearly all the descriptions in this volume, 
and for undertaking most of the problems encountered in practical work. 

Compound Microscope. The stand should be of the Continental 
type, and should be provided with two objectives, a double nose-piece, 
two eye-pieces, an eye-piece micrometer, and a substage diaphragm. 

A satisfactory range in magnification is secured by f and \ objectives 
and I- and 2-inch eye-pieces, of English and American makers, or Nos. 2 
and 6 objectives and II and IV eye-pieces of Continental makers. 

A simple form of eye- piece micrometer is suited for our purpose. It 
may be cahbrated by means of a stage micrometer. 

The double nose-piece, enabling the worker instantly to change from 
one objective to the other, is an inexpensive convenience that adds so much 
to the utihty of the instrument that it may be regarded as a necessity. 

For ordinary work the only substage attachments needed are the 
mirror and a simple diaphragm, but the substage should be of such a 
construction as to permit the introduction of a substage condenser and 
an iris diaphragm. 

Simple Microscope. A pocket lens will answer the purpose, but an 
instrument with a stage and adjustable arm for the lenses is much more 
convenient. 

Turn-table with centering pins for ringing permanent mounts. 

Section Razor. This should be plano-concave and have a keen, 



APPARATUS. 7 

thin edge for cutting soft tissues. Another razor with a stronger edge 
is useful for cutting hard materials. 

Hone. 

Strop. 

Dissecting-needle Handles with interchangeable needles. 

Scalpel. 

Forceps with fine points. 

Slides of the usual size (3X1 inch) may be obtained either of thick 
or thin glass, as preferred. 

Cover-glasses. No. 2 round cover-glasses f inch in diameter are 
recommended for both temporar}- and permanent mounts. 

Reagent Bottles with stopper pipettes ground into the neck. 

Watcli glasses. 

Supplementary Apparatus. The following accessories, although not 
essential for ordinary work, should be in every well-appointed microscopi- 
cal laboratory. 

A Suhstage Condenser with an iris diaphragm attached is valuable 
in securing sufl^icient illumination on dark days. 

Polarizing Apparatus.'^ This apparatus is useful chiefly in the exami- 
nation of starch grains, crystals, and thickened cell-walls. It consists 
of two Nicol prisms, one (the polarizer) mounted in the substage, the 
other (the analyzer) in the tube or above the eye-piece. Selenite plates 
for use with the polarizing apparatus may be mounted either in a revolving 
cUsk in the substage, or in a metal slip for use on the stage under the 
object-slide. 

A Mechanical Stage is of service in examining systematically every 
portion of a mount. A detachable form is recommended, as there are 
many times when this attachment is a hindrance rather than a convenience. 

Microtome. This instrument is of value in preparing uniformly thin 
sections, particularly of soft tissues. In preparing a series of sections 
it is invaluable. It is, however, an instrument for special investigation, 
and not for practical food examination. 

Parafflne Bath. For use in paraffine embedding. 

Camera Lucida. Useful in making drawings. 

Photomicrographic Apparatus. This is especially useful in preparing 
exhibits for court cases. 

^ A convenient micropolariscope, arranged for instantly changing from plain to 
polarized light and vice versa, has been described by the writer. Jour. Appl. Micros. 
1899, 1, 51. 



I 



REAGENTS. 

The following reagents comprise all that are needed for practical 
work. Others which are useful in special investigations are described 
in Strasburger's and Zimmerman's works. (See Bibliography, p. 19.) 

Acetic Acid. Glacial or 99 per cent acetic acid diluted with 2 parts 
of water. 

Alcohol. In dehydrating preparations for mounting in xylol balsam, 
absolute alcohol is used, but for preserving, hardening, and most other 
purposes ordinary 95 per cent alcohol meets every requirement. 

Alcanna Tincture. Macerate 20 grams of alkanet root for several 
days with 100 cc. of water. Dilute with an equal volume of water as used. 

Ammonia Water. The concentrated solution containing about 30 
per cent of ammonia gas is used in making Schweitzer's reagent and for 
some other purposes. For the turmeric test the concentrated solution 
should be diluted with 10 parts of water. 

Canada Balsam in Xylol. The solution prepared ready for use may 
be obtained of all dealers in microscopic supplies. 

Chloral Hydrate Solution. Dissolve 8 parts of chloral hydrate in 5 
parts of water. 

Chloroform. 

Chlorzinc Iodine Solution. Treat an excess of zinc with hydrochloric 
acid, evaporate to a specific gravity of 1.8, and filter through asbestos. 
As needed, saturate a small portion of the sirupy liquid first with potas- 
sium iodide and finally with iodine. 

The solution may also be prepared by dissolving 30 grams of zinc 
chloride, 5 grams of potassium iodide, and 0.89 gram of iodine in 14 cc. 
of water. The solution should be freshly prepared, and kept in a dark 
place. 

Ether. 

Ferric Chloride. Dissolve i part of the salt in 100 parts of water. 

Fehling Solution. I. Dissolve 173 grams of crystalhzed Rochelle 
salts and 125 grams of caustic potash in water and make up to 500 cc. 
II. Dissolve 34.64 grams of crystallized copper sulphate in water and 
make up to 500 cc. Mix equal parts of I and II as needed. 



REAGEMTS. 



Glycerine. For use as a mounting medium, dilute with an equal volume 
of water. 

Glycerine Jelly (Kaiser's). Soak i part of finest French gelatine 
2 hours in 6 parts of distilled water. Add 7 parts of glycerine, and to 
each 100 grams of the mixture, i gram of strongest carbohc acid. Warm 
for 10 to 15 minutes with constant stirring, until the flakes from the car- 
bohc acid disappear. Filter through previously moistened glass wool. 
Warm as needed, and remove with a glass rod. Glycerine jelly is sold 
by all dealers. 

Glycerine Gum. Dissolve 10 grams of gum arabic and 2 grams of 
glycerine in 10 cc. of water. 

Hydrochloric Acid, Concentrated. 

Iodine in Potassium Iodide. Dissolve 0.05 gram of iodine and 0.2 
gram of potassium iodide in 15 cc. of water. 

Iodine Tincture. Dissolve in 95 per cent alcohol sufficient iodine 
to make a hght coffee-colored solution. 

All iodine solutions deteriorate on keeping, particularly if exposed 

to the Hght. 

Labarraque's Solution (chlorinated soda). Thoroughly triturate 75 
grams of fresh chlorinated lime (bleaching-powder) with 600 cc. of water, 
added in two or three successive portions, and filter. To the filtrate 
add a solution of 150 grams of cr>'staUized sodium carbonate in 400 cc. 
of water, mix thoroughly, warm if the solution gelatinizes, and again 

filter. 

The solution gradually loses strength on standing, and should be 
kept in stoppered bottles in a cool, dark place. 

Javelle Water (chlorinated potash) may be prepared in the same 
manner, substituting 58 grams of potassium carbonate for the sodium 
carbonate. This reagent is used for the same purpose as Labarraque's 

solution. 

Millon's Reagent. Dissolve metallic mercury in an equal weight of 
concentrated nitric acid and dilute with an equal volume of water. The 
solution should be freshly prepared. 

Nitric Acid, Concentrated. 

Olive Oil. 

Paraffine. 

Phoroglucin Tincture. Dissolve o.i gram in 10 cc. of 95 per cent 
alcohol The solution deteriorates on keeping. 

Potash Solution. Dissolve 5 g^ams of caustic potash (potassmm 



lo PRELIMINARY. 

hydrate) in loo cc. of water. If desired, caustic soda may be substituted 
for caustic potash. 

The term "alkaH " as used in this work refers to one or the other of 
these solutions. 

Sajranin Solution. Prepare a saturated water solution, and dilute as 
needed. 

Schultze's Macerating Mixture. Mix a few crystals of potassium 
chlorate with concentrated nitric acid immediately before using. 

Schweitzer's Reagent ("ammoniacal copper solution," "cuprammonia," 
"cuoxam"). Precipitate cupric oxyhydrate from a solution of copper 
sulphate by adding a sUght excess of caustic soda or ammonia, filter and 
thoroughly wash. Dissolve the moist precipitate in strong ammonia 
with the aid of heat, cool, and filter from the precipitate which forms. 
It should be freshly prepared, and kept in the dark. 

Soda Solution. Five per cent solution of caustic soda (sodium hydrate) 
may be substituted for potash solution as a clearing agent. In the crude- 
fiber process, and for removing dark coloring matters, i^ per cent solu- 
tion is used. 

Sulphuric Acid. The concentrated acid is employed in several tests. 
It should be diluted to i^ per cent for use in the crude-fiber process. 

Turpentine (spirits or oil of turpentine). 

Xylol. 



COLLECTIONS. 

A collection of the vegetable materials used as foods or food adulterants 
and mounts of such materials are as indispensable to the food microscopist 
as is an herbarium to a systematic botanist. Alany points of structure and 
special reactions can be learned with the aid of such collections which 
cannot be properly described in words or illustrated by figures. 

Standard Materials. The collection should include not only the 
fruits, seeds, barks, leaves, rhizomes, flowers, and other whole materials, 
but also the various products prepared from them. Many of these may 
be obtained from grain dealers, grocers, seedsmen and pharmacists, 
others may be collected in the field or garden. Powders are conveniently 
stored in screw-top bottles, which have the advantage over glass- or cork- 
stoppered botdes that they more completely exclude dust. Fruits, vege- 
tables, and other succulent materials are preserved in alcohol or formalde- 
hvde. Especially useful is the collection of economic seeds prepared under 
the direction of Frederick V. Coville, Botanist of the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, by Gilbert H. Hicks, also the cabinet of materia 
medica specimens supplied by Parke, Davis and Company, Detroit, 
Mich., U. S. A. 

Microscopic Mounts. Powders such as flour, meal, and starch are 
best mounted in water as occasion demands, but sections and other diffi- 
cultly prepared specimens should be at hand in permanent form. The 
collection of mounts may be prepared either by the microscopist himself, 
or by a skilled worker from material of his selection. At present suitable 
collections of mounts are not on the market 



i 



PREPARATION OF MATERIALS FOR 
EXAMINATION. 

MECHANICAL PREPARATION. 

Cross-sections. In studying standard material cross-sections are 
indispensable, as they show the number and arrangement of the cell 
layers and certain details of structure. Longitudinal and tangential sec- 
tions are of lesser importance. Sections are also useful in the examina- 
tion of coarsely ground commercial products, such as ground coffee and 
other materials containing fragments large enough for cutting. It should 
be remembered, however, that sections play a comparatively unimpor- 
tant role in diagnosis, as most of the materials which the microscopist is 
called upon to examine are fine powders and other preparations in which 
the tissues have been torn one from another, and can only be studied in 
surface view or as isolated elements. 

Considerable discretion is required in the treatment preliminary to the 
cutting of sections. As a rule, dried materials are best cut after soaking 
in water for some hours or until thoroughly softened, although cruciferous 
seeds and some other materials are best cut dry. Succulent fruits and 
other fresh materials should be hardened in 50 per cent alcohol. Only 
in the investigation of very delicate tissues is it desirable to resort to the 
tedious process of impregnating with paraffine or collodion. 

Large objects arc held between the thumb and first finger during cut- 
ting, small objects between pieces of elder pith, sticks of soft wood, or 
in a hand vise, or else they are embedded in parafiine or glycerine gum. 
Wood for holding materials during cutting should be sawed across the grain 
into sticks so that the razor or microtome knife will cut with the grain. 

Glycerine gum is used not merely to embed the object, but also to 
attach it to a piece of elder pith. The sections are cut after the gum 
has hardened. 

Parafiine may be used not only for dry materials, whether or not 
impregnated with paralfine as described below, but also for fresh material 
or material softened in water, provided the outer surface is carefully dried 

12 



PREPARATION OF MATERIALS FOR EXAMINATION. 13 

to insure contact. It should have a melting-point of 54° or 74° C, and 
is conveniently molded into sticks by melting at the lowest possible 
temperature and pouring slowly into a glass or metal tube. The stick 
may be loosened from the tube by gentle heating. The object is introduced 
into a cavity in the end of the stick, and the paraffine melted about it 
with a hot wire or needle. 

The section razor used for cutting soft objects should have a keen, 
thin edge, but for cutting nut shells and other hard tissues another razor 
with a beveled edge should be in readiness. Both are kept in order 
by honing and stropping. 

The microtome is a convenience but not a necessity, being used almost 
exclusively in preparing permanent mounts for the collection or in diffi- 
cult investigations. Many food microscopists use only a razor. 

Impregnating and Embedding with Paraffine or Collodion is best carried 
out with material preserved while fresh in 50 per cent alcohol, although 
dry material may be soaked in water until the tissues are softened and 
then transferred to 50 per cent alcohol. To facilitate the process, seeds 
and small fruits should be cut in half, and other materials in as small 
pieces as practicable. 

In carrying out the paraffine process the object is immersed successively 
in the following: 65, 80, and 95 per cent alcohol, absolute alcohol, a mix- 
ture of equal parts of xylol and absolute alcohol, xylol, a mixture of xylol 
and paraffine (melting at 43° C), 43° paraffine kept at 50°, and finally 
54° paraffine kept at 60°. The time required for permeation in each of 
these varies, according to. the size and nature of the object, from one to 
several days. Finally the object is removed from the paraffine to a suit- 
able mold, covered with melted paraffine, and allowed to cool. 

If the collodion process is followed, the object is treated with 50, 65, 
80, and 95 per cent alcohol and absolute alcohol as above described, but 
is removed from the latter to absolute ether, then to a mixture of ether 
and collodion, and finally to pure collodion. It is then transferred to 
a paper mould, covered with collodion, and, when the latter has 
soHdified, the whole is placed in 80 per cent alcohol, where the collodion 
in some hours forms a cartilaginous mass enveloping the object. 

Sections of fruit stones and nutshells are cut with a fine saw and after 
being attached to a shde by hot Canada balsam are ground down to the 
desired thickness on a whetstone. They are finally mounted in balsam. 

Surface Sections are useful in studying epidermal tissues, fruit and seed 
coats, and other cell aggregates forming distinct layers. Thcv are much 



14 PRELIMINARY. 

easier to prepare than cut sections. Dried materials should be soaked 
in water, after which the layers may usually be removed by scraping or 
stripping. The separation of the coats from very small seeds is often 
facilitated by soaking for some hours in dilute (i| per cent) caustic soda. 
Boiling with dilute soda is sometimes desirable, particularly if the layers 
contain coloring matters which render them opaque. The epidermal 
layers of fruits can often be separated by plunging into boihng-hot water. 

The bran coats of cereals, the seed coats of legumes, and oil seeds, 
and the various layers of spices and other materials may be studied in 
fragments picked out from the coarsely ground products with forceps or 
separated by sifting. Even in quite finely ground products one often 
finds large enough fragments for studying in surface view not only the 
characters of the individual cells, but also the arrangement of the cells 
in the layers. 

The different layers in surface sections may become separated from 
one another or they may remain in their original position one on top of 
another. In the latter case it is often possible by careful focusing not 
only to study successively the layers, but also to determine their order of 
arrangement. This is greatly facihtated by noting in preparing the 
mount whether the outer or the inner surface is uppermost, and also by 
comparison with cross-sections. Some materials which have no very 
characteristic single layer can be identified by the combination of several 
cell layers and their order of arrangement. 

Powders. Since the food microscopist is called upon to examine 
powders more often than any other class of products, he should familiarize 
himself with the microscopic characters of standard materials in powder 
form. Tissues in definite layers, such as epidermal cells, the bran coats 
of cereals, and the coats of various seeds, have much the same appear- 
ance in the ground material as in surface preparations ; except that in 
fine powders the fragments are smaller, and radially elongated elements, 
such as the palisade cells of legumes and cotton seed, often fall on their 
sides, presenting the same appearance as in cross-section. Cells not in 
layers, such as make up the endosperm of cereals and the cotyledons of 
legumes, do not present a striking appearance in powder form, ahhough 
the contents of their cells, being liberated by the rupture of the cell-walls, 
may be studied to advantage. Stone cells, vessels, and other detachable 
elements arc also striking objects in powders. 

Commercial Poivders should first be examined under a simple micro- 
scope, either before or after separation into grades by sifting, and fragments 



PREPARATION OF MATERIALS FOR EXAMINATION. 15 

picked out for subsequent examination under the compound microscope. 
Mounts representing the whole material should also be made. If the 
powder is too coarse for mounting directly, it may be reduced to an im- 
palpable powder in an iron mortar, or a small portion may be crushed on 
the slide with a scalpel. 

Special instructions for the examination of flour are given on p. 54, 
of cereal cattle foods on p. 59, of ground oil cakes on p. 171, and of 
ground spices on p. 497. 

Pulps. The flesh of ripe fruits may be examined as a pulp, hard 
elements, such as vessels and stone cells, being especially distinct in such 
preparations. The same method is used for commercial jams, jellies, 
pastes, etc. 

Maceration by Schultze's method is useful in reducing hard materials 
to a pulp, thus isolating the elements. The process consists in cautiously 
heating a small amount of the material in a capsule with concentrated 
nitric acid and a few crystals of potassium chlorate. As soon as the 
tissues are sufficiently disintegrated, the solution is diluted with water and 
the fragments washed thoroughly by decantation. 

TREATMENT WITH REAGENTS. 

Mounting in Water. Although water is usually regarded as an 
inert substance, it serves in microscopic work as the most important 
of all reagents ; in fact, if we had no other w^e would still be able to carry 
on our work with reasonable success. 

Water dissolves sugars, gums, certain proteids, and other cell-contents, 
and in addition swells and partially dissolves constituents of the cell-walls. 
Most of these soluble substances have no marked microscopic characters, 
whereas the insoluble constituents, including starch and calcium oxalate 
among cell-contents, and cellulose, lignin, suberin, and cutin of cell-wall 
constituents, occur in striking and often highly characteristic forms. 
For these reasons water is especially suited as a microscopic medium, 
although it cannot of course be used for permanent mounts. 

In the water mount we iirst observe whether starch is present, and 
if so, note the characters of the grains. i\ddition of iodine solution dif- 
ferentiates the starch grain from other bodies. We next turn our atten- 
tion to the other elements, particularly the tissues. Starch, if present 
in considerable amount, obscures the tissues, but can be converted 
into a paste and thus rendered transparent by heating the mount to boiling 



1 6 PRELIMINARY. 

over a lamp, replacing the water lost by evaporation. This boiling, 
v^hich takes the place of treatment with alkaH, chloral, or other clearing 
agents, also renders the tissues more distinct by swelling the cell-walls. 

Air bubbles may be removed from a section by soaking in a considerable 
amount of recently boiled water. 

Treatment with Iodine colors the starch grains of water mounts blue, 
proteid matter yellow-brown, and cellulose, lignin, and other cell-wall 
substances various shades of yellow. 

The solution in potassium iodide acts more rapidly than the tincture, 
coloring the starch grains a deeper shade of blue. 

If the tincture is added directly to the dry or alcohol materialj starch 
grains are colored brown-yellow, changing to blue on dilution with water. 

Treatment with iodine and then with strong sulphuric acid colors 
cellulose blue, Hgnified, suberized, and cuticularized tissues yellow. Chlor- 
zinc iodine gives much the same color reactions as iodine and sulphuric 
acid, and is more convenient. The best results are secured if the prepara- 
tion is first soaked in water. 

Treatment with Oil Solvents. Products containing a large amount 
of fat, oil, or essential oil can be studied to advantage only after treatment 
with chloroform, ether, turpentine, or some other oil solvent. Sections 
may be soaked in the solvent in a covered watch-glass, and powders may 
be extracted on a filter or in a fat extractor. More convenient methods, 
provided subsequent treatment with reagents is not needed, are to mount 
the section or powder directly in turpentine, which dissolves the oil, or else 
in olive or almond oil which mix with the oil of the product. These 
methods are especially useful in the study of aleurone grains. 

Clearing. Alkalies (potassium or sodium hydrate) are the most 
serviceable clearing agents for general use. The treatment may be per- 
formed on the slide either by mounting directly in dilute alkali or by adding 
a small drop of 5 per cent alkali to a water mount, or in the case of dark- 
colored tissues by boiHng with i^ per cent caustic soda. 

Alkali dissolves starch, proteids, various coloring matters and other 
cell-contents. It also swells the cell-walls, and to some extent expands 
compressed tissues. 

Chloral Hydrate acts more slowly than potash and soda, but has the 
advantage that it does not distort greatly the tissues. 

Labarraque Solution (chlorinated soda) and Javelle Water (chlorinated 
potash) are admirable reagents for bleaching tissues and expanding com- 
pressed cells- Thev are particularly adapted for sections, but owing to 



PREPARATION OF MATERIALS FOR EXAMINATION. 17 

the difficulty of removing the bubbles, are less suited for powders. Sec- 
tions should be soaked in the reagents (diluted if necessary) until the 
desired result is attained, and then washed in water and finally in very 
dilute acetic acid. They become so transparent by this treatment that 
staining with safranin or some other dye is usually essential. 

Crude Fiber Method. This process serves not merely for the quan- 
titative determination of crude fiber, but also for clearing the tissues 
for microscopic examination. After weighing the crude fiber a small 
quantity may be removed for examination without introducing a per- 
ceptible error in the subsequent determination of ash. The action is 
so energetic as to destroy dehcate tissues; but is valuable in clearing stone 
cells and other sclerenchyma elements. 

The process (which may be abbreviated if used merely for clearing) 
is as follows: Extract 2 grams of the finely ground material with ether, 
place in a 500 cc. Erlenmeyer flask, and add 200 cc. of boiling 1.25 
per cent sulphuric acid. Loosely cover the flask, heat at once to boiling, 
and boil gently thirty minutes. Filter on a paper, wash with hot water, 
and rinse back into the same flask with 200 cc. of boiling 1.25 per cent 
sodium hydroxide solution nearly free from carbonate. After boiling, 
as before, for thirty minutes, collect the fiber on a weighed paper, thor- 
oughly wash with hot water, and finally with a little alcohol and ether. 
Dry to constant weight at 100° C, and weigh. Deduct the amount 
of ash in the fiber, as determined by incineration, from the total 
weight. 

Staining. Great numbers of stains have come into use for staining 
cell-walls and cell-contents. 

Sajranin, a stain strongly recommended by Strasburger, has the advan- 
tage over most other stains in that it differentiates very beautifully the 
tissues, and does not, hke most coal-tar colors, fade in glycerine mounts. 
The best results are secured by soaking the section for some time in a 
rather dilute water solution. Overstaining, with subsequent removal 
of the excess with alcohol, is often advantageous. 

Treatment with Other Reagents is carried on in a watch-glass, or on the 
slide, as occasion demands. In the latter case the material is either 
treated directly with a drop of the reagent, or it is first mounted in water, 
and a drop of the reagent is drawn under the cover-glass by means of a 
piece of filter-paper placed on the opposite side. 

Sections of impregnated material are attached to a slide by means 
of Meyer's albumen fixative, then soaked in chloroform or xylol until 



1 8 PRELIMINARY. 

the paraffine is dissolved, and finally treated with reagents and stains 
ad lihitiim. 

Permanent Mounting. The technical microscopist, as well as the 
investigator, often has occasion to mount in permanent form objects 
of special interest. If the material contains a large amount of oil, or if 
it has been impregnated with paraffine, these should be removed by 
treatment with chloroform, xylol, or other oil solvent. Objects which 
have been cleared with alkah or Labarraque's solution should be washed 
thoroughly in water and finally in very dilute acetic acid. Most other 
reagents can be removed by water or alcohol. Staining is advisable if 
the tissues are both colorless and transparent, and is essential if Canada 
balsam is employed as the mounting medium. Air bubbles may be re- 
moved by boiling or allowing to soak in a considerable bulk of freshly 
boiled water. Slides and cover-glasses must be scrupulously clean and 
free from finger prints. 

The process of mounting is quite simple. A suitable sized drop of 
the mounting medium is placed in the center of the sUde, the object is 
transferred to this, and the cover-glass is placed in position by means 
of forceps. If too much of the medium is used, the excess is removed 
with a piece of filter-paper; if too little, more is added from one side. 
The mount is finally ringed with two or more coats of cement. 

It is well to keep the sHde on the turn-table not only during ringing, 
but also while mounting, thus facilitating the centering of both object 
and cover-glass. 

Mounting in Glycerine. A mixture of equal parts of glycerine and water 
is the best single medium for our purpose, since wet objects may usually 
be mounted directly without staining or dehydrating, and can be removed 
at any time for further treatment with reagents. 

The mounting is greatly facilitated by so gauging the size of the drop 
that it exactly fills the space beneath the cover-glass. If more is added, 
or an excess removed, care should be taken to clean thoroughly the slide 
about the cover-glass with a filter-paper, otherwise the cement will not 
stick to the glass. The mount should be ringed two or three times with 
a good cement, allowing it to dry at least 24 hours between the coats. ^ 

Mounting in Glycerine Jelly requires less skill than mounting in glyc- 
erine, but the heating necessitated by the process injures some materials, 

* The writer uses "King's Transparent Cement" for the first coat, and "King's Lacquer 
Cell and Finish" (red or blue) or "White Zinc Cement" for the finishing coats, the three 
colors being used to distinguish respectively cross, surface, and longitudinal sections. 



PREPARATION OF MATERIALS FOR EXAMINATION. 19 

and, furthermore, the objects are not so readily removed should occasion 
demand. 

A small cube of the solid or a drop of the melted jelly is placed on the 
slide and heated gently until fluid throughout. The object, which maiy 
be taken from water or glycerine, is then introduced, and the cover-glass, 
previously warmed to prevent introduction of air bubbles, is placed in 
position. After coohng, the excess of the jelly should be carefully removed, 
and the mount ringed, as described for glycerine mounts. 

Mounting in Canada Balsam can be carried out only with objects freed 
from water. Dehydration is effected by soaking in 95 per cent alcohol, 
absolute alcohol, and finally in xylol, chloroform, or oil of cloves. Stain- 
ing is essential for objects with colorless tissues. 

A drop of the xylol balsam is placed in the center of the shde, the 
object is introduced, and the whole is covered with a sHghtly warmed 
cover-glass. More balsam is added if, after standing, the space under 
the cover-glass is not entirely filled. Aiter the balsam has thoroughly 
hardened, the excess may be removed and the mount ringed with colored 
cement; this, however, is not essential, for the mount is permanent with- 
out it. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1 

Behrens: Guide to the Microscope in Botany (Trans, by Hervey). Boston, 1885. 

Chamberlain: Methods in Plant Histology. Chicago, 1901. 

Lee: The Microtomist's Vade Mecum. Philadelphia, 1900. 

Strasburger and Hillhouse: Handbook of Practical Botany. London, 1900. 

Zimmermann: Botanical Microtechnique (Trans, by Humphrey) New York, 1901. 

' Works in English. 



THE PRINCIPAL HISTOLOGICAL ELEMENTS. 

TISSUES. 

Parenchyma (Fig. i) is a general term for the simpler forms of tissues, 
with thin walls composed usually of cellulose. The common types of 
parenchyma cells are either isodiametric or somewhat elongated, and 
may or may not have intercellular spaces at the angles. If the walls are 




Fig. I. Parenchyma from the stem of maize, gw double wall between two cells; z inter- 
cellular space produced by splitting of the double wall. (Sachs.) 

of cellulose, chlorzinc iodine colors them blue and Schweitzer's reagent 
dissolves them. 

Spongy Parenchyma (Fig. 2) is a loose spongy tissue with numerous 
intercellular spaces of considerable size. 

Collenchyma (Fig. 3) is characterized by conspicuous thickenings at 
the angles of the cells. The cell-wall is composed of cellulose, or a modi- 
fication known as coUenchym. This form of tissue occurs most com- 
monly in subepidermal layers. 

Sclerenchyma includes a great variety of tissues with thickened walls 
composed chiefly of lignin. The walls of these cells as first formed 
are pure cellulose, Hgnin being deposited on the inner surface of the 
walls during subsequent growth. Chlorzinc iodine colors the walls yellow 



THE PRINCIPAL HISTOLOGIC/IL ELEMENTS. 



21 



or yellow-brown; phloroglucin and hydrochloric acid, pink; aniline sul- 
phate, deep yellow. 

Stone Cells (Fig. 4) are isodiametric, or moderately elongated scleren- 
chyma elements, with thickened walls and conspicuous pores. They 
occur either singly or in groups in parenchyma, or form dense tissues, 
such as the shell of the cocoanut and the stone of the peach. 





Fig. 2. Spongy Parenchyma from the hull 
(spermoderm) of the common pea. 
(MOELLER.) 



Fig. 3. Epidermis and CoDenchyma 
from the petiole of Begonia, v 
thickened wall of collenchyma; chl 
chlorophyl grains. (Sachs.) 



Sclerenchyma Fibers (Fig. 5) occur in various parts of plants. Those 
found in fibro- vascular bundles are known as Bast Fibers. 

Other sclerenchyma tissues are found in stems, leaves, the coats of 
fruits and seeds, and in various organs. 

Epidermal Tissues have certain characteristics peculiar to their posi- 
tion. They are usually covered by a membrane known as the "cuticle," 
composed of cutin, a substance related to Hgnin and suberin. Wax, 
silica, calcium carbonate, and calcium oxalate also occur as epidermal 
incrustations. 

Stomata are made up of pccuHarly differentiated epidermal cells. 
(See pp. 28-30.) 

Hairs and Glands, including many beautiful and characteristic forms, 
are unicellular or multicellular outgrowths of epidermal layers. 



22 



PRELIMINARY. 



Cork Cells form protective layers on stems and other parts. The 
cells are arranged in radial rows, and are polygonal in surface view, quadri- 
lateral in section. Suberin, the characteristic constituent, is repellent of 
water. 

Fibro-vascular Bundles (Figs. 6 and 25). The conducting elements 
of plants are commonly grouped into vascular or fibro-vascular bundles, of 
which the nerves of leaves and the strands of stems and roots arc examples. 





Fig. 4. Stone Cells from the shell of the 
cocoanut. (WiNTON.) 



Fig. 5. Bast Fibers from the bark 
of Sambucus nigra. (VOGL.) 



A bundle is made up of two distinct parts: (i) the xylem, wood or had- 
rome, consisting of vessels, tracheids, and other hgnified elements, and 
(2) the phloem, bast or leptome, consisting of sieve tubes, cambiform 
cells, and other non-Hgnified elements. 

Groups of bast fibers usually accompany the bundles. 

For details as to the arrangement of xylem and phloem see pp. 39-45. 

The Vessels of the xylem, also known as ducts and trachese, are thin- 
walled tubes with annular, spiral, scalariform or reticulated thickenings, 
or thick-walled tubes with pits or pores. 

Tracheids resemble vessels in their markings, but consist of rows of 
cells placed end to end, not open tubes. 



THE PRINCIPAL HISTOLOGICAL ELEMENTS. 



23 



Sieve Tubes, the characteristic elements of the phloem, are thin-walled, 
elongated cells, with perforated transverse partitions known as sieve plates. 
These sieve plates also occur to some extent on the longitudinal walls. 
Both the sieve tubes and the accompanying cambiform cells are com- 
posed of cellulose. 

Bast Fibers (Fig. 5) are long, pointed cells with lignified walls. Pores 
through which pass diagonal, crossing fissures are usually evident. 




Fig. 6. Fibro-vascular Bundle from the mesocarp of the cocoanut, in longitudinal section. 
ste stegmata; Si silicious body; / bast fibers; / tracheids with small pits; t' tracheids 
with large pits; sp spiral vessel; r reticulated vessel; sc scalariform vessel; 5 sieve 
tube; c and c' cambiform cells. (Winton.) 

Latex Tubes (Fig. 341). These are branching tubes containing milky 
secretions, found in various stems and roots, and occasionally in fruits. 



CELL=CONTENTS. 

Protoplasm, the living matter of the vegetable cell, includes: (i) cyto- 
plasm, which in the growing stage is a viscous, stringy, more or less granu- 
lar substance, but in the dried material has no marked characters; (2) the 
cell nucleus, a rounded body differentiated by staining and often evident 
without; and (3) the plastids or chromatophores, including the chloro- 
plasts, leucoplasts, and chromoplasts. 

Chloroplasts, or chlorophyl grains, occur in all green parts, and play 
an important role in assimilation (p. 29.) 

Leucoplasts are inconspicuous, colorless bodies instrumental in the 
formation of starch (p. 644). 



24 



PRELIMINARY. 



Chromoplasts are orange or yellow bodies of various shapes to which 
certain organs owe their distinctive color. 

Proteids occur either in amorphous form or as aleurone grains. On 
heating with Millon's reagent they form a reddish deposit; on treatment 
with iodine solution they are colored yellow or brown. 

Aleurone Grains (Fig. 7) are found in the perisperm, endosperm, and 
embryo of seeds, particularly oil seeds, and like starch grains have marked 




Fig. 7. Aleurone Grains; in the center two cells filled with aleurone grains. (T. Hartig.) 

microscopic characters, which are often characteristic of the species 
or genus. These grains vary in size from less than i /i to over 50 //. 
Among the numerous shapes are round, oval, irregularly swollen, angular, 
and warty forms. They are colored yellow or brown by iodine solution 
and take up readily certain aniline dyes, hasmatoxylin, and other stains. 
Being partly soluble in water, they should be mounted either in glyc- 
erine after extraction of the oil in which they are often embedded, or 
directly in oil or turpentine. Each grain consists of a ground substance, 
in which are usually embedded one or more crystalloids, one or more 
globoids, and often a crystal rosette of calcium oxalate, the whole being 
inclosed in a thin membrane. 

1. The ground substance consists of amorphous proteid matter, and is 
usually soluble in water, although after previous standing in alcohol it 
dissolves slowly. It is also soluble in dilute alkali, acids, and various 
reagents, but is not affected by oil or oil solvents. 

2. Crystalloids are proteid crystals belonging to the isometric or hex- 
agonal system. In some species they are so large that a single crystalloid 
makes up the bulk of the grain, in others they are very minute. For the 
most part they are insoluble in cold water, but dissolve in very dilute alkali 
(less than i per cent), dilute acetic or hydrochloric acid. They are insol- 



THE PRINCIPAL HISTOLOGICAL ELEMENTS. 25 

uble in saturated solution of picric acid (distinction from globoids) and 
in saturated solution of sodium phosphate (distinction from all other con- 
stituents of the grains). 

3. Globoids, according to Pfeffer, consist of lime and magnesia combined 
with phosphoric acid and an organic acid. They are usually globular, 
of uniform transparent structure, and are not colored by iodine solution. 
They are insoluble in both cold and hot water, but unHke crystalloids are 
soluble in saturated solutions of picric acid and sodium phosphate and 
insoluble in dilute potash. 

4. Calcium oxalate occurs as single crystals or as crystal rosettes. 
These are insoluble in water, alkali, and acetic acid, but dissolve readily 
in dilute hydrochloric acid. 

Alkaloids are nitrogenous substances, often with marked stimulating 
or toxic properties. Some, such as morphine and piperine, are crystalline 
sohds, others, such as nicotine, are liquids. Caffein and theobromin are 
often classed as alkaloids. 

Starch. See pp. 643-650. 

Sugars occur in solution in certain stalks, roots, and fleshy fruits, and 
in the form of crystals in dried fruits. Crystals are readily seen in alcohol 
or glycerine mounts of raisins, figs, dates, etc. 

Cane-sugar crystaUizes in monoclinic prisms. It does not reduce 
Fehling solution. 

Invert-sugar consists of equal parts of dextrose and levulose, and is 
formed by the spHtting up or "inversion" of cane-sugar. In many fruits 
both cane- and invert-sugar are present, although as a rule the large fruits 
contain much more cane-sugar than the small fruits. As both dextrose 
and levulose are reducing sugars, they are detected by heating the dry 
object to boiling in a drop of Fehling solution diluted with two drops of 
water. The red precipitate of copper suboxide thus formed is often 
evident to the naked eye. 

Other sugars occurring in plants are rafinose, mannit, dulcit, melitose, 
etc. 

Inulin is a water-soluble carbohydrate found in the roots of the dande- 
lion and other composite plants. In alcohol material it forms sphaero- 
crystals; in dried material, colorless, irregular lumps. 

Gums. These include various mucilaginous substances, some of which 
are formed in the cell, others are derived from the cell-walls. They swell 
in water and are precipitated by alcohol. 

Glucosides are compounds of sugars with organic acids. Some of 



26 



PRELIMIN/}RY. 



them, such as hesperidin, form needle-shaped crystals insoluble both in 
water and dilute acids. 

Tannins are themselves colorless, but are usually associated with 
brown coloring substances. In the fresh material they are in solution, 
but on drying they impregnate the tissues or form brown deposits. With 
iron salts they become dark blue or green. 

Fats and Fatty Oils rank with carbohydrates and proteids in impor- 
tance. They occur in all parts of the plant, but are especially abundant 
in certain seeds, where they serve as reserve material. The fats may form 
amorphous masses, or beautiful crystals, while the oils occur as globules. 
Both are soluble in ether, chloroform, benzine, turpentine, and xylol, and 
form soaps with alkahs. With few exceptions they are insoluble in alco- 
hol. On treatment for some hours with alcanna tincture, all fatty sub- 
stances, as well as resins and essential oils, take on a beautiful red color. 

Waxes are closely related to fats. 

Essential Oils and Resins are formed in glands or secretory cavities, 
and are distinguished from fats and fatty oils by their solubility in alcohol. 



t^' 




■J~ ':-A J^t:f. 




Fig. 8. Crystals of Calcium Oxalate, a large single crystal; c crystal rosette or cluster; 

b intermediate form. (Kny.) 

Calcium Oxalate. Lime is one of the elements essential for plant 
growth, its chief function being to render poisonous oxalic acid harmless 
by conversion into insoluble calcium oxalate. Monoclinic, or rarely 
tetragonal, crystals of this salt occur in certain tissues, and are often of 
great service in diagnosis. Four distinct forms deserve special mention: 
(i) crystal clusters or rosettes (Fig. 8, h and c), (2) large single crystals 
(Fig. 8, a), (3) raphides or needle-shaped crystals (Fig. 9), and (4) crystal 
sand or deposits of numerous minute crystals (Fig. 10). 



THE PRINCIPAL HISTOLOGICAL ELEMENTS. 



27 



Calcium oxalate is distinguished from all other crystalline substances 
by its insolubihty in water, alkah, and acetic acid, its solubility without 





Fig. 9, Raphides of Calcium Oxalate 
from the flesh of the pineapple. 

(WiNTON.) 



Fig. 10. Crystal Sand of Calcium Oxalate 
from the leaf of belladonna. (Winton.) 



effervescence in dilute hydrochloric acid, and the formation of crystals of 
calcium sulphate with sulphuric acid. 

Calcium Carbonate is present in certain plants as concretions or 
cystoliths (Fig. 169, cy), less often as crystals. It dissolves in dilute 
hydrochloric acid with effervescence. 

Silica forms an incrustation on certain epidermal tissues, and less often 
occurs as warty bodies in pecuhar cells known as stegmata (Fig. 6, Si). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.^ 

De Bary: Comparative Anatomy of the Vegetative Organs of the Phanerogams and 

Ferns (Trans, by Bower and Scott). London, 1884. 
GOODALE: Physiological Botany. I. Outlines of the Histology of Phaenogamous Plants. 

Nevi^ York, 1885. 
Strasburger, Noel, Schenck, and Schimper: A Text-book of Botany (Trans. 

by Porter and revised by Lang). London, 1903. 



1 Works in English. 



MORPHOLOGY OF ORGANS. 
THE LEAF. 

Leaves are specially developed for carrying on three processes: (i) 
assimilation (photosynthesis), or the formation of organic matter through 
the agency of light from carbonic acid and water, with exhalation of 
oxygen; (2) respiration, or the oxidation of organic matter, with exhala- 
tion of carbonic acid; and (3) transpiration, or exhalation of water drawn 
up from the soil. As a rule they expose a large surface to the air, and have 




Fig. II. Leaf in Cross Section of Marshmallow (AltlicEa officinalis), e upper epidermis; 
p palisade cells and p' spongy parenchyma of the mesophyl; e' lower epidermis; h 
hairs; d glandular hairs; st stomata; K calcium oxalate rosette. (Vogl.) 

special adaptations for facihtating or preventing communication with the 
air, according to the needs of the plant. 

A cross-section of a leaf (Fig. 11) shows that it is made up of a middle 
layer or mesophyl of green tissues with a network of veins, between two 
colorless cuticularized epidermal layers. 

28 



MORPHOLOGY OF ORGANS. 



29 



The Lower Epidermis (Fig. 12) consists of ground cells interspersed 
with stomata, and often with hairs or glands. The ground cells in surface 
view differ greatly in character according to the species. Some are sharply 
polygonal, or quadrangular, with straight walls, others have ill-defined 
angles and wavy walls, and others still are irregular in outHne. The 
walls may be thin or thick, porous or non-porous; the cuticle smooth or 
wrinkled. 

Stomata are slits between two hemJ-elhptical guard cells, which when 
open allow free access of air to the mesophyl. In some leaves two or more 
modified cells, known as accompanying cells, adjoin the guard cells. The 




Fig. 12, 



Epidermis with Stomata from the leaf of Hydrangea Hortcnsia, in surface view. 

(MOELLER.) 



guard cells of the stomata are the only cells of the epidermis containing 
chlorophyl grains. 

In addition to ordinary or air stomata a larger form known as water 
stomata occurs on some leaves. 

Hairs and Glands (secretory hairs) present an endless variety of beau- 
tiful and characteristic forms. All hairs whether unicellular or multi- 
cellular are epidermal outgrowths, but Emergences are made up of tissues 
belonging both to the epidermis and the mesophyl. 

The Mesophyl in the under part of the leaf forms a spongy parenchyma, 
(Fig. II, p') thus facilitating assimilation, respiration and transpiration, 
but in the upper part it is a close tissue, often consisting of one or more 
layers of palisade cells (p.). 

Chlorophyl grains are present in all the mesophyl cells, but are most 
abundant in paHsade cells of the upper layers (Fig. 11, p). They are 
rounded bodies varying up to 12 /j. in diameter. They consist of granules 
(some green, others colorless) , proteid matter and starch grains, embedded 
in a ground substance and surrounded by a membrane. During assimila- 



30 PRELIMINARY. 

tion starch is continually being formed in these grains, but is soon dis- 
solved and translocated to other parts of the plant. In dried leaves the 
chlorophyl grains are more or less brov^n in color, and lack distinct char- 
acters. 

The Fihro -vascular Bundles of leaves are strongly developed in the 
midribs and main branches, but in the smaller branches are rudimentary. 
Spiral vessels are particularly abundant. Other elements which may 
occur in the mesophyl are stone cells, crystal cells, resin cavities, oil cells, 
latex tubes, etc. 

The Upper Epidermis may or may not be similar to the under epidermis 
in structure, but as a rule stomata are less abundant or absent. 

Preparation of Materials. 

Sections are cut with a razor, holding the leaf between pieces of pith. 
In the case of thin leaves it is advisable to cut into several strips, place 
one on the other, and section all together. Pieces of the epidermis are 
readily stripped off from moist leaves with forceps. In powdered leaves 
the elements are isolated by squeezing under the cover-glass. 

THE FLOWER. 

Although the four parts of the flower — sepals, petals, stamens, and 
pistils — are metamorphosed leaves, usually only the sepals, less often both 
sepals and petals, resemble leaves in outward appearance and structure. 

Calyx. The sepals, like leaves, consist of mesophyl between two 
epidermal layers. Stomata and often hairs are developed on one or 
both epidermal layers. The mesophyl parenchyma usually contains 
chlorophyl, but a well-developed pahsade layer is seldom present. Bundles 
are more or less strongly developed. 

Corolla. The petals are of various colors and commonly of delicate 
texture. Each consists of two epidermal layers and a middle tissue of 
elongated parenchyma (corresponding to the chlorophyl parenchyma of 
leaves) through which pass delicate bundles. Stomata are usually lack- 
ing, but hairs and papillae are often present. Spiral vessels, and less often 
crystal libers, are present in the bundles. The coloring matter of the 
fresh petal is usually dissolved in the cell-sap, seldom in the form of chro- 
moplasts. The perfume of flowers is due to essential oils present in the 
cell-sap, in special cavities (nectaries), or in glands 



MORPHOLOGY OF ORGANS. 



31 



Stamens. Each consists of a slender, cylindrical (less often flattened, 
leaf-like) filament, bearing at the apex an anther with a pair of pollen 
sacs on each side of the central bundle (Fig. 13). On ripening, the sacs 




Fig. 13. Anther oi Datura Stramonium in cross section, c connective tissue with fibro- 
vascular bundle; a outer pollen sacs; p inner pollen sacs„ (FranKi) 

of each pair unite, and finally the wall opens by a slit or pore, liberating 
the pollen grains. 

The walls of the anthers (Fig. 14) are composed of an outer layer 





Fig. 14. Anther Wall in cross 
section showing the outer 
epidermis and the endothe- 
cium with reticulated walls. 
(Sachs.) 



Fig. 15, Pollen Grains, i, 2 heath; 3, 4 linden; 
5 blueberry; 6, 7 marjoram; 8, 9 lavender; 10, 
II sage; 12, 13 balm; 14, 15 rosemary; 16, 17 
flax; 18 white mullein; 19, 2omelilot; 21 willow 
herb; 22, 23 composite plants. (Villiers and 
Collin.) 



or epidermis, sometimes hairy, and an endothecium or inner layer of char- 
acteristic cells with narrow radial ribs forming reticulations. 



32 



PRELIMINARY. 



Pollen Grains (Fig. 15) are mostly globular, rounded, or tetrahedral, 
either smooth or else covered with warts, bristles, or pits. They consist 
of single cells clothed with two membranes ; the outer thick, forming a 
kind of cuticle; the inner thin, forming the cell- wall proper. The con- 
tents consist of protoplasm, often with granules in suspension. When 
the ripe pollen is deposited on the stigma the protoplasmic contents burst 




Fig. 16. Pollen Grains and Crystals of Cane-sugar irom Honey, a pollen grains of furze; 
b of heath; c of some composite flower. (Hassall.) 

out through clefts, or more commonly through pores, forming tubes which 
penetrate through the tissues of the stigma and style into the ovule, effect- 
ing fertilization. The shape, size, and markings of pollen grains are 
often so characteristic as to permit the identification of the species, not 
only in powders, but also in honey, thus furnishing evidence as to the 
flowers visited by the bee (Fig. 16). 

The Pistil (Fig. 19) consists of stigma, style, and ovary, the latter 
enclosing the ovules. The stigma is clothed with clammy papilla, on 
which the pollen grains lodge. The style is long or short, with a central 



MORPHOLOGY OF ORGANS. 



ZZ 



channel. It is made up of elongated elements. The ovary walls are 
of quite simple structure, but the fruits into which they ripen are often 
complex. 

THE FRUIT (PERICARP AND SEED). 

A fruit in its simplest form is a ripened pistil, consisting of pericarp or 
matured ovary wall, and one or more seeds or matured ovules. In some 
fruits, notably the apple and other pomes, the fruit flesh is developed from 




Alb-- 







T 



Fig. 17. Cocoanut Fruit. S lower part of axis forming the stem; A upper end of axis 
• with scars of male flowers. Pericarp consists of Epi epicarp, Mes mesocarp with 
fibers, and End endocarp or hard shell; T portion of spermoderm adhering to endo- 
sperm; Alb endosperm surrounding cavity of the nut; K germinating eye. (Winton.) 

receptacle and ovary wall. If the flower has several ovaries, these on 
ripening form an aggregate fruit. A compound or multiple fruit consists 
of the united fruits of several flowers. The receptacle of aggregate and 
compound fruits is sometimes fleshy, forming the bulk of the fruit. Ex- 
amples are the strawberry, an aggregate fruit with nutlets on the outside 
of a fleshy receptacle, and the fig, a compound fruit with nutlets on the 
inside of a hollow receptacle. 

PERICARP. 

The mature pericarp may be dehiscent (e.g. legumes, crucifers), or inde- 
hiscent, and in the latter case may be entirely fleshy (e.g. grape, banana, 



34 



PRELIMINARY. 



and other berries), entirely dry (e.g. acorn and other nuts), or partly 
fleshy and partly dry (e.g. peach and other drupes). It may be distinct 
from the seed or seeds (e.g. peach, legumes), or united with the seed (e.g. 
cocoanut, wheat, and other cereals). 



Mes 




End 



Fig. i8. Coats of Bayberry {Lauras nobilis) in cross section. Pericarp or fruit coat 
consists of Epi epicarp, Mes mesocarp, and End endocarp; 5 spermoderm, testa, or 
seed coat. (Moeller^ 



Since the pericarp is the ripened pistil and the pistil is a metamorphosed 
leaf, all three are analogous in structure, each consisting of a middle layer 
between two epidermal layers. The mesocarp, or middle layer of fruits, 
is often however more complex in structure than the mesophyl of leaves. 



MORPHOLOGY OF ORGANS. 35 

The Epicarp (Figs. 17 and 18, Epi), or epidermis of the pericarp, 
consists of a single layer of cells, often interspersed with hairs and rarely 
with stomata. 

The Mesocarp (Figs. 17 and 18, Mes) in some fruits forms a layer 
several centimeters or even decimeters thick, in others is scarcely thicker 
than a sheet of writing-paper. 

The hypoderm, consisting of one or more layers adjoining the epicarp, 
is often different in structure from the layers further inward. 

The remainder of the mesocarp may be homogeneous throughout 
except for fibro-vascular bundles, or may consist of several forms of cells 
(stone cells, oil cells, etc.) irregularly distributed in a homogeneous 
ground tissue, or arranged in distinct layers. The visible cell-contents 
include starch, sugar, oil, tannin, chlorophyl, calcium oxalate, and other 
substances. 

The Endocarp (Figs. 17 and 18, End), strictly speaking, consists of the 
innermost cell-layer, but in the case of nuts, dupes, and other fruits the 
hard shell made up of numerous layers of stone cells is commonly desig- 
nated by this term. 

SEED. 

In order to understand the structure of the seed it is essential to con- 
sider the structure of the ovule from which it was developed, and the 
changes this undergoes after fertilization. 

An ovule (Fig. 19) consists of the body or NuceUus {s) in which is 
embedded the Embryo sac (t), the whole being enclosed by one, or more 
often two, coats or Integuments (p, q) with an opening at one end known 
as the Foramen (m). The Chalaza (0) is the base of the ovule where the 
integuments unite with the nucellus : the Hilum is the place of attach- 
ment with the support or Funiculus. In orthotropous and campylotro- 
pous ovules the chalaza is also the hilum, in anatropous and amphitro- 
pous ovules they are more or less separated, and are joined by a ridge 
known as the Raphe («). 

The pollen grains soon after they are deposited on the stigma of the 
flower send off tubes (klm) which penetrate through the style into the 
cavity of the ovary, and through the foramen into the nucellus, finally 
entering the embryo sac and eiJecting fertihzation. As a result of this 
fertilization the Embryo and the Endosperm are formed in the embryo 
sac, and these together with the Perisperm, consisting of the developed, 
or more commonly, degenerated nucellus, the Spermoderm, consisting of 



36 PRELIMINARY. 

the matured integuments, and occasionally certain appendages, make up 
the seed. 

Either the embryo, the endosperm or the perisperm of the mature 




Fig-. 19. Flower of Simple Type in Longitudinal Section. 

Stamens consist of c filaments and a, b anthers (a cross section, b after dehiscence show- 
ing pollen grains). 

Pistil consists of h stigma with i pollen grains sending off tubes, one of wlaich {klm) has 
reached and penetrated the ovule, g style, and / ovary, the walls of which later develop into 
the pericarp. 

Ovule consists of n funiculus (below) and raphe (above), chalaza, p outer integument, 
q inner integument, m micropyle, 5 nucellus or body of the o\aile, and t embryo sac in which, 
through the agency of u antipodal cells, v synergidse, and s oosphere, are developed the 
endosperm and the embryo. 

d bases of sepals; e nectaries. (Sachs.) 

seed may form the chief reser^•oir of reserve material, or, on the other 
hand may be reduced to a rudiment. 



MORPHOLOGY OF ORGANS. 



37 



This reserve material may consist chiefly of starch (e.g. cereals), of oil 
(e.g. cottonseed, linseed), or of cellulose (e.g. coffee, ivory nut). 





.4 

Fig. 20. Caraamom Seeds. A longitudinal section, X 3. B transverse section, X 5. p 
perisperm; e endosperm; em embryo. The reserve material in the perisperm is largely 
starcli; in the endosperm and embryo it is oil and proteids. (Luerssen.) 

The Spermoderm, Testa, or Seed Coat, includes all the layers developed 
from the integuments of the ovule.^ It may be simple or complex, thin or 
thick, soft or hard. In some seeds it con- 
sists of but one or two thin layers (e.g. 
cereals), in others of live or six distinct 
layers, some of the layers being several 
cells thick (e.g. cucurbits). Among the 
common elements are thick- and thin- 
walled pahsade cells, stone cells, crystal 
cells, spongy parenchyma, and ordinary 
parenchyma. The "Nutritive Layer" 
found in some seeds is a parenchymatous 
tissue containing in the early stages of 
development reserve material, but later 
forming an ill-defined ti: sue of empty 
compressed cells. 

The hilum, chalaza, and raphe of the 
ovule preserve their characters in the seed, 
while the foramen becomes more or less 
indistinct, forming the Micropyle. 

The raphe (present in anatropous and 
amphitropous seeds) is a bundle of vascu- 
lar elements with more or less distinct 
branches. 

The appendages of the Spermoderm include the Arillus or seed mantle, 

' Some authors apply the term "testa" only to that portion of the seed coat developed 
from the outer integument of the ovule, the portion developed from the inner integument 
(if present) being termed "tegmen." This usage leads to confusion owing to the difficulty 
of tracing the origin of each layer. 




Fig. 21. Linseed in cross section. 
5 spermoderm or seed coat; E endo- 
sperm ; C cotyledons. The reserve 
material, consisting of oil and pro- 
teids, is partly in the endosperm and 
partly in the embryo. (Moeller.) 



38 



PRELIMINARY. 




the thickened 

(MOELLER.) 



cell 



an outgrowth from the hilum, the Arillode, an outgrowth from the micro- 
pyle, and the Caruncle, a wart-Hke body formed on the micropyle, also 

bristles, wings, and other appendages which 
aid in disseminating the seeds. 

The Perisperm or Nucellar Tissue is 
usually a thin layer, often without cell struc- 
ture, but in black pepper and cardamom 
(Fig. 20, p) it forms the larger part of the 
seed and contains the store pf reserve starch. 
The Endosperm constitutes the bulk of 
many seeds (e.g. cereals), but is almost 
, „ entirely absent in others (e.g. bean, crucifers). 

Fig. 22. Endosperm of Date 

Stone with reserve material in In the cereals the outcr layer or layers of 
^^ the endosperm consist of aleurone cells, the 
remainder, of starch cells; in linseed the 
endosperm (Fig. 21, E), which constitutes about half of the seed, con- 
tains aleurone grains and oil, but no 
starch; in coffee and the date stone 
(Fig. 22) the bulky endosperm contains 
reserve material in the form of thick- 
ened cell-walls. 

The Embryo is a young plant with 
Cotyledons or seed leaves. Radicle or 
young root, and Plumule or bud. It 
may be embedded in the center or 
one side of the endosperm (e.g. cereals, 
coffee), or it may constitute the bulk 
of the seed (e.g. legumes, crucifers, 
cottonseed). In the latter case the 
reserve material, which may be largely 
starch or oil, is located chiefly in 
the thickened cotyledons and radicle 
(Fig- 23). 




Fig. 23. Mustard Seed in cross sec- 
tion. Embryo consists of c folded 
cotyledons and r radicle. Reserve 
material, consisting of oil and pro- 
teids, is entirely in the embryo. 

(TSCHIRCH.) 



THE STEM (BARK AND WOOD). 

The stem is the axis connecting the leaf and root systems. It may 
be aerial or subterranean, simple or branched, herbaceous or woody. In 
some herbaceous plants it is exceedingly short, the leaves appearing to 
spring directly from the root, while in many herbaceous and all woody 



MORPHOLOGY OF ORGANS. 39 

plants it consists of an elongated trunk with or without a system of 
branches. 

Not only does the stem serve to mechanically support the leaves, but 
also, by means of the bundles, to distribute over the plant solutions of salts 
absorbed by the roots, of carbohydrates assimilated by the leaf, and of 
other organic substances formed in various parts of the plant. During 
the resting season large amounts of reserve material are stored in stems. 

AERIAL STEMS. 

The fibro-vascular bundles of phenogamous stems are collateral, that 
is, the phloem and xylem of each are in the same radial plane. Usually 
the phloem is entirely on the outer side of the xylem, but in some stems it 
is partly on the inner side (bicollateral). 

In the stems of exogenous plants (dicotyledons and gymnosperms) 
the bundles with the parenchyma separating them are arranged in a zone 
between the pith and the cortex. The outer ring of the bundle zone con- 
tains the bast fiber groups, the middle ring, the phloem groups, the inner 
ring, the xylem groups. If the plant is perennial a ring of active cells or 
cambium soon forms between the phloem and xylem rings, adding each 
year new tissues to the inner side of the former and the outer side of the 
latter. The layers outside of the cambium constitute the bark, those 
between the cambium and pith constitute the wood. 

The bundles of endogenous plants (monocotyledons) are irregularly 
distributed through a parenchymatous ground tissue. There is no cam- 
bium and no differentiation into bark and wood. 

The following descriptions of annual and perennial stems apply only 
to exogenous plants: 

Annual Stems. 

The stems of herbaceous plants and the young stems of woody plants 
consist of at least four distinct zones: 

1. Epidermis. This resembles the epidermis of the leaf. Stomata 
and hairs are often present. 

2. Cortex. The tissue is largely parenchyma, often with outer layers 
of collenchyma and inner layers containing either bast fibers or stone cells, 
or both. 

3. Endodermis. This consists of a single layer of cells with thin but 
suberized walls. Starch grains are usually found in the cells. 



40 PRELIMINARY. 

All the tissues inside of the endodermis form the central cylinder or 
Stele. 

4. Bundle Zone. The Phloem strand of each bundle consists of sieve 
tubes, cambiform cells, and parenchyma; the Xylem strand, of vessels 
(tracheae), tracheids (distinguished from vessels by the cross partitions), 
and parenchyma. The bundles are separated from each other by paren- 
chyma, developing in perennial stems into the medullary rays. Groups 
of bast fibers are commonly present in the outer parenchyma, or Pericycle. 

5. Pith. This consists entirely of typical parenchyma. 

Perennial (Woody) Stems. 

The structure of perennial stems (Figs. 24 and 25) is much more com- 
plicated than that of annual stems, owing to the formation of secondary 
bark and wood by the cambium, also of cork and secondary cortex by the 
phcllogen. 

The Bark includes all the outer part of the stem up to the wood. It is 
readily stripped off from the latter, especially during the spring, the separa- 
tion being through the dehcate cells of the cambium. Although many 
barks are used in medicine (e.g. cinchona, sHppery elm, cascarilla), and 
in the arts (e.g. oak, hemlock), only cinnamon and its substitutes are of 
importance as foods. 

1. Cork. With the increase in diameter of the stem the epidermis is 
ruptured and finally disappears entirely. In its place cork is formed by 
an active (meristematic) layer known as the Phellogen. As the cells of 
the phellogen divide by tangential partitions, the rectangular cork cells, 
as seen in cross sections, are in radial rows. They usually have suberized 
walls, and often contain dark contents with the reactions of tannin. 

As the stems continue to grow the primary cork often suffers the same 
fate as the epidermis, and is replaced by a secondary layer formed in the 
cortex by a new phellogen. This secondary cork may later be replaced 
by a tertiary, and so on. 

2. Secondary Cortex, a thin-walled tissue hardly distinguishable from 
the primary cortex, is formed from the phellogen on the inner side. 

3. Primary Cortex. The parenchymatous ground tissue often contains 
starch and crystals of calcium oxalate. Stone cells and bast fibers may 
also be present. The endodermis of old stems is not usually distinguishable 
from the other layers. 

4. Pericyte. This may consist of parenchymatous ground tissue with 



MORPHOLOGY OF ORGANS. 



41 



isolated groups of bast fibers, or of a "mixed ring" composed chiefly of 
stone cells and bast fibers. 

5. Bast. Like the phellogen, the cambium forms one kind of tissue 
on the outside, another kind on the inside. These are respectively the 
phloem and the xylem, a layer of each being produced each year. The 
phloem layers of different years' growth, together with the separating 




Fig. 24. Branch of the Linden, in cross section, showing the bark and three annual layers 

of wood. (Kny.) 

partitions or medullary rays, form the bast ring. In addition to sieve 
tubes, cambiform cells, and parenchyma, the bast may contain oil cells, 
mucilage cells, latex tubes, and other elements. Starch is often present. 

Microscopic Elements 0} Barks. The elements of chief importance in 
diagnosis are bast fibers, stone cells, starch grains, and cork. The other 
elements have less striking characters. 

Wood. The wood elements, like the phloem elements, are in radial 
rows, separated by medullary rays, and also in annual layers. The ele- 
ments include vessels and tracheids of numerous types, wood fibers, 
parenchyma, and medullary parenchyma. The parenchyma cells often 



42 



PRELIMINARY. 



contain starch and calcium oxalate, and all the tissues may contain or be 
impregnated with resins, essential oils, etc. 

Woods are not used as foods, but sawdust and red sandalwood powder 
are common adulterants. 




a b c d e j g h t k I m n o 

Fig. 25. Elements of a Dicotyledonous Fibro-vascular Bundle in longitudinal section, a 
parenchyma of pith; 6 annular vessel passing into spiral vessel; c spiral vessel ; J reticu- 
lated vessel; e wood parenchyma; / wood fiber; g pitted vessel; h wood parenchyma; 
i cambium layer; k cambiform cells; / sieve tubes; tn sieve parenchyma; n bast fibers; 
parenchyma. (Kny.) 

The Microscopic Characters of woods of angiosperms and gymnosperms 
as given by Moeller are as follows : 

The Wood of Angiosperms is characterized by the vessels with numerous 
small pits (Fig. 26, g). More abundant than these are the wood fibers 
(/) occurring mostly in bundles, accompanied often by wood parenchyma 
(p), and crossed by medullary parenchyma (m). Simple crystals of calcium 
oxalate in crystal fibers occur in many tropical woods (Fig. 28, k). 

Determination of the species or even the genus by the characters of 
the powder is very difficult. Chief dependence must be placed on the 
structure of the vessels. 

The Wood of Gymnosperms consists in large part of tracheids with 
single rows of bordered pits (Fig. 27, /), which, except in the spring wood, 
where they occur sparingly, are on the sides adjoining the medullary rays. 
These are most striking in radial sections. Well-formed oxalate crystals 



MORPHOLOGY OF ORGANS. 



43 



are absent. The wood of certain European species may be distinguished 
by the characters of the medullary rays. 




Fig. 26. Sawdust of an Angiospermous Wood, p wood parenchyma; / wood fibers; 
g vessels with numerous pits; m medullary rays in radial and tangential view; K crystal 

cells. X 160. (MOELLER.) 

SUBTERRANEAN STEMS. 

To this class belong Rhizomes or root-stalks (e.g. ginger), Tubers (e.g. 
potato), and Conns (e.g. cyclamen). Rhizomes in common parlance 




Fig. 27. Sawdust of a Coniferous Wood. / tracheids with single rows of pits; m medul- 
lary rays; /"parenchyma. X 160. (Moeller.) 

are classed with roots. Bulhs (e.g. onion) are subterranean stems 
covered with leaf scales. 



44 



PRELIMINARY. 



Many subterranean stems are reservoirs of starch, sugar, inulin, and 
other reserve materials, and are important foods. Their tissues are much 



A 



B 




Fig. 28. Red Sandalwood {Pterocarpus santalimis). A radial section; B tangential sec- 
tion, k crystal fibers; / wood fibers; p wood parenchyma; g bundle; m medullary 
rays. X 160. (Moeller.) 

simpler than those of aerial stems, consisting chiefly of parenchyma with 
a thin covering of cork and relatively few bundles. In the rhizomes of 
dicotyledons the bundles, Hke those of aerial stems, are collateral ; in those 
of monocotyledons they start as collateral, but later often become con- 
centric, with the xylem encircling the phloem. Mechanical elements, 
being unnecessary, are usually few or entirely lacking. 

THE ROOT. 

The root fixes the plant in the soil and absorbs the water and mineral 
matters essential for life and growth. In certain plants the root is fleshy, 
serving as a storehouse for reserve material. The roots used as foods 
include the turnip, beet, carrot, parsnip, chicory, and others. 

Annual Root. 
The general structure resembles that of dicotyledonous stems, but the 
elements of the epidermis and the arrangement of the bundles are quite 
different. 



MORPHOLOGY OF ORGANS. 45 

1. Epidermis. Root hairs, consisting of blunt, thin-walled outgrowths 
from the center of epidermal cells, are found on young roots. Hairs 
such as occur on aerial parts, as well as stomata, are never present. 

2. Cortex. This is a parenchyma tissue similar to that of stems. 
Chlorophyl is absent. 

3. The Endodermis is characterized by the suberizcd and often 
thickened walls. 

4. Litndle Zone. The outer layer (pericycle or pericambium) is of 
parenchyma. The bundles proper are of the radial type the phloem and 
xylem being side by side, not one in front of the other, as in the collateral 
bundles. The groups of xylem and phloem elements alternating with one 
another form a chain about the center of the root. 

5. Pith. This may or may not be evident. 

Certain fleshy annual roots, such as the beet, show concentric rings 
similar to those of wood. These are formed by a series of new cambium 
layers which appear one after another in the parenchyma, each producing 
a ring of phloem and xylem. 

Perennial (Woody) Roots. 

The secondary changes in the roots of monocotyledons are not impor- 
tant, but in dicotyledons the structure finally becomes much the same as 
that of the stem. The epidermis with root hairs is replaced by cork, and 
the bundles change from radial to collateral. The cambium forms out- 
side of the xylem and inside of the phloem of each bundle, and conse- 
quently is [It first sinuous in cross section. As the thickening proceeds the 
radial arrangement disappears, and the cambium finally forms a ring Hke 
that of stems. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See p. 27. 



PART II. 

GRAIN: ITS PRODUCTS AND IMPURITIES. 



GRAIN. 

Grain, in the ordinary acceptance of the term, includes sucli fruits of 
the cereals (Grammeo') and buckwheats {Polygonacca) as are valuable as 
food for man and cattle. 

The impurities of grain include weed seeds, ergot, spores of smuts, 
straw, dirt, and other matters (p. 145 et seq.). Weed seeds belonging to 
the GraminecE and Polygonacea are described with the economic species 
of these families. 

The nature and purity of grain is readily determined by macroscopic 
examination, although a thorough understanding of the microscopic 
structure of the whole grain is essential for the diagnosis of products. 

Flour and Meal. 

In the examination of mill products with respect to their purity and 
wholesomt:ness, the following points call for consideration: (i) Is added 
mineral matter present? (2) Is it or has it been infested by insects or 
other forms of animal life ? (3) Has the product or the grain from which 
it was made been damaged by rusts, moulds, or bacteria? (4) Was it 
made from sprouted grain? (5) Are starch or tissues of weed seed present 
in appreciable amount ? (6) Are foreign flours or other vegetable adulter- 
ants present ? 

Mineral Adulterants. Calcium sulphate (gypsum), calcium carbonate 
(chalk), clay, and even sand were formerly added to flour and meal, but 
at the present time are seldom if ever used in any cereal product, although 
calcium sulphate in considerable amount has been frequently detected in 
cream of tartar and baking-powder, and powdered rock (talc and tremo- 
lite) to the extent of 25 per cent has been found in one brand of baking- 
powder examined at the Connecticut Experiment Station. 

Foreign mineral matter is best detected by determinations of ash, 
supplemented by an ash analysis, although the chlorofoiTn test (p. 53) 
furnishes valuable indications. 

49 



50 GRAIN. 

Insect and other Animal Contamination. According to Chittenden i 
the insects which most commonly infest grain and flour are cosmopolitan, 
having been distributed by commerce to all quarters of the earthr The 
following common species are described : 

The granary-weevil (Calandra granaria L.), the rice-weevil {Calandra 
oryza L.), the Angoumois grain-moth {Sitotroga cerealella 01.), the wolf- 
moth {Tinea granella L.), the Mediterranean flour-moth {Ephestia Kueh- 
niella ZeU.), the Indian (maize) meal moth {Plodia interpuncteUa Hbn.), 
the meal snout-moth {Pyralis farinalls L.), the confused flour-beetle 
(Tribolium conjusum Duv.), the rust-red flour-beetle (tribollum jerrugi- 
neum Fab.), the slender-horned flour-beetle {Echocerus maxillosus Fab.), 
the broad-horned flour-beetle {Echocerus cornutiis Fab.), the small-eyed 
flour-beetle {Palorus ratzehurgi Wissm.), the yellow meal-w^orm {Tcnebrio 
molitor L.), the dark meal-worm {Tenebrio obscurus L.), the saw-toothed 
grain-beetle {Silvanus surinamensis L.), the red or square-necked grain- 
beetle {Cathartus gemallatus Duv.), the European grain-beetle {Cathartus 
advena Waltl.). and the cadelle {Tenebroides mauritanicus L.) 

Among the creatures found only in the ground products are the sugar- 
mite {Lapisma saccharina), the common flour-mite {Acarus jarincB), and 
the feathered mite {Acarus plumiger). 

The figures and descriptions given by Chittenden, Bohmer,^ and other 
authors aid in the identification of the foregoing species. 

In cases where the live insects are no longer present evidences of 
previous infection are often furnished by the wings or other parts of dead 
insects, also by the excrement, webs and other remains, seen either with 
the naked eye or under the microscope. 

Wheat is often infested by the wheat- worm {Tylenchus scandens ^chw., 
Anguillula iritici Need.) a nematode related to Trichina'. So-called 
"cockle-wheat" (Fig. 29) consists of wheat kernels entirely transformed 
by the ravages of this disgusting, but probably harmless, creature. The 
more or less distorted kernels are from 3-7 mm. long, and often forked at 
the apex. The tough shell, consisting of rather thick-w'alled porous 
sclerenchyma elements with intercellular spaces, inclose a tangled mass of 
worms, which, as may be seen with a low power, become active when 
thrown into water. The worms are upward of i mm. long, pointed at 



' Some insects injurious to stored grain. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmer's Bulletin No. 45, 
Washington, i8g6 

2 Kraftfuttermittel, pp. 65-68. 



FLOUR AND MEAL. 



51 



both ends, and appear to be filled with a granular substance. They are 
easily recognized in water mounts. 

The Cryptogamic Plants which attack the inflorescence of cereals 
often render the grain unfit for flour-making. To this class belong the 
smuts (p. 165) and ergot (p. 164). 

Molds, yeast plants, algas and bacteria are also developed in the flour 
itself, especially after exposure to dampness, and as a consequence the 

n 




Fig. 29, 



Cockle WTieat. / whole grains somewhat enlarged. II cross section; 
ep epidermis; p thick-walled parenchyma. (Vogl.) 



flour becomes "off color," lumpy, and offensive both in odor and taste. 
Fungus hyphas, spores and other cryptogamic elements furnish microscopic 
evidence of such contamination. 

Bohmeri gives analytical keys and systematic descriptions for the 
identification of these and other microorganisms. 

Sprouted Grain. As a consequence of improper storage, grain some- 
times begins to sprout, and thus loses in a greater or less degree its value 
for flour-making. Under the microscope the starch grains have a char- 
acteristic appearance due to their partial solution by the diastatic ferments 
developed during germination. The concentric rings are unusually dis- 

' Loc. cit. 



52 



GRyllN. 



tinct, and branching channels rescmbhng burrows of worms occur in many 
of the grains (Fig. 30). 

Weed Seeds. See pp. 145-163. 

Foreign Flour. In Europe, wheat flour is sometimes adulterated 
with rye, barley, buckwheat, rice, bean, potato, or acorn flour, while in 
America it is frequently mixed with maize flour. 

Rye flour, according to the German authorities, is much oftener adul- 
terated by inferior wheat flour than wheat flour by rye flour. 

Buckwheat flour is often mixed with wheat, maize, barley, or rice 




Fig. 30. Starch Grains from Sprouted Cereals. Left, large grains from wheat; right, 

from rye. (Vogl.) 

flour, sometimes with the intent of cheapening the product; less often to 
meet the demands of consumers. 

Rice flour is hable to the same forms of adulteration as buckwheat 
flour, while maize flour, because of its cheapness, is seldom adulterated. 

Sawdust, Maize Cob, and other similar waste products cannot be 
reduced to a sufliciently fine powder to be used in fine flour, but are some- 
times mixed with coarse meal, and cattle foods. They are detected by 
their high percentage of crude fiber and low percentage of starch and 
protein, as well as by their characteristic tissues. 

Methods of Examination. 

Preliminary Examination. The color, odor, taste, and other physical 
characters should first be noted and compared with samples of known 
purity. Flour or meal that is damp, mouldy, foul-smelling, or infested 
by insects, is obviously unfit for food whatever may be the results of 
chemical or microscopic examination. 

Color Test. In German mills and custom-houses since 1894, the color 
of flour has been determined by "pekarizing" (pekarisiren) as follows:^ 

' Vereinbarungcn zur einheitlichcn Untersuchung u. Beurthcilung von Nahrungs- u. 
Genussmittel. Berlin II, 1S99, iS. 



FLOUR AND MEAL. 53 

Spread two teaspoonfuls (15-20 grams) of the flour on a glass plate or 
thin board, so as to form a parallelopiped 5 cm. long, 3 cm. broad and 
2 mm. high. Cover with a glass plate and press until the surface is 
smooth. 

In this way the color of different samples may be much more accurately 
compared than when loose. 

The differences in color arc. brought out still more strikingly by care- 
fully placing the plate in a shghtly incHned position under water and keep- 
ing in that position for about one minute. 

CailleUet's Chloroform Test, designed chiefly to furnish indications of 
mineral adulteration, consists in shaking in a test-tube about 2 grams of 
the flour with 25 cc. of chloroform. If on standing, any considerable 
amount of deposit collects at the bottom of the tube, the presence of 
mineral matter is indicated, as the flour particles, being for the most part 
lighter than chloroform, rise to the surface. 

This residue may be examined chemically, but the test should always 
be corroborated by an accurate determination of ash in the original material 
and an analysis of the ash. 

Beneke's Chlorojorm Test} This test serves not only to detect mineral 
powders but also to distinguish rye flour from wheat flour, or to detect 
the presence of one in the other. It is as follows: Place 100 grams of 
the flour in a 500-600 cc. flask and add enough chloroform tofifl the flask 
two thirds full; cork and shake carefuUy until no lumps remain; then fill 
nearly full, shake vigorously, and allow to stand. A brown deposit of 
dirt soon settles, and gradually a further deposit, consisting largely of aleu- 
rone cells forms a layer over the last. After about 24 hours, this latter 
deposit should be examined with the naked eye and under the microscope, , 
noting especially the color. The aleurone cells of rye are blue or olive- 
green, those of wheat yellow-brown. 

VogPs Alcohol-Hydrochloric Acid Test- furnishes indications of the 
presence of foreign flour or ground weed seed. 

Shake violently 2 grams of the flour in a test-tube with 10 cc. of a solu- 
tion containing 5 per cent of hydrochloric acid and 70 per cent. of alcohol; 
warm finally at a gentle heat and allow to settle. Note the color in reflected 
Hght of the column of solution, the meniscus, and the deposit. 

Wheat flour entirely free from impurities yields both a colorless solu- 
tion and a colorless deposit, and wheat flour with a small amount of im- 

'Landw. Vers.-Stat. 1889, 36, 337. 

- Die wichtigsten vcgetabilischen Nahrungs- u. Genussmittel, p. 24. 



54 GRAIN. 

purity, also common rye, oat, and barley flour, yield a pale yellow or pale 
yellow-red solution. A decided coloration of the solution, particularly at 
the meniscus, indicates a considerable amount of weed seed. 

Cockle {Agrostemma) and darnel (Lolium) color the solution orange- 
yellow; leguminous seeds, rose-red, violet or purple; cow wheat (Melam- 
pyriim), blue-green or green; ergot, flesh-red to blood-red. 

Gluten Test. Make a handful of the flour into a dough with the 
smallest possible amount of water and wash with continual kneading under 
a stream of water. Wheat flour yields by this treatment an elastic mass 
of gluten while the flour of other cereals is gradually but completely 
washed away. 

Chemical Examination. Determination of the usual proximate con- 
stituents in the flour often aids in the diagnosis. For example, wheat flour 
is moderately rich in protein but poor in fat, corn flour is somewhat poorer 
than wheat tlour in protein but much richer in fat, while buckwheat and 
rice flour are poor in both of these constituents. 

Microscopical Examination. In 1882, the Association of German 
Millers offered a prize of a thousand marks for an essay describing a simple 
process for detecting admixtures in wheat and rye flour. Wittmack won 
this prize, and the motto of his essay was : " Das Mikroskop ist der beste 
Leitstern." 

Not only is it true that the microscope is the most valuable means for 
the examination of flour, but in many cases it is the only means. 

The following methods of preparing the material for examination will 
be found useful: 

Direct Examination. The points of special importance are the size 
and shape of the starch grains, the presence or absence of aggregates, the 
size of the hilum, and the distinctness of the rings. With the aid 
of the key on p. 64 and the descriptions under each cereal identifica- 
tion of the group and often of the particular starch is readily accom- 
plished. Among the more difficult problems are the distinction of the 
grains of wheat, rye, and barley; of rice, oats, and darnel; and of maize 
and sorghum. 

Polarized light is useful in determining the locations and form of 
the hilum through which the crossed lines seen with crossed Nicols 
always pass. In cereal starches the hilum is central, and in potato and 
various other starches eccentric. The hilum of leguminous starches is 
elongated (see Fig. 572). 

The crossed lines differ greatly in intensity, being scarcely evident 



FLOUR AND MEAL 55 

in wheat, rye, and barley, but distinct in maize, sorghum, rice and many 
other kinds. 

The briUiancy of the starch grains and their crosses when viewed 
with polarized hght also aids in detecting them in the presence of fat 
globules and aleurone grains, although the addition of iodine solution 
accomplishes the same end. 

Heating the water mount to boiling or Addition of Alkali (potassium 
or sodium hydrate) dissolves at once the starch and proteid matter 
and thus clears the tissues. Usually, however, this treatment, which 
is so valuable in the case of materials with considerable bran tissues, 
is of less service in the examination of flour than one of the following 
methods for accumulating the bran tissues from a large amount of the 
material. 

Sell im per' s Scum Method.^ Mix thoroughly 3 grams of the flour 
with 100 cc. of water and heat without further stirring until the boiling- 
point is reached. The scum which rises to the surface contains the 
greater part of the hairs and other bran tissues, and may be transferred 
to a slide and examined both directly and after treating with chloral 
or alkah. 

Steinhusch's Diastase Method.- Make 10 grams of the flour into 
a paste with 40 cc. of water and add with constant stirring 150 cc. of 
boiling water. Cool to 55°-6o° C. and add 30 cc. of malt extract (pre- 
pared by digesting at room temperature for 3 hours i part of freshly 
ground malt and 10 parts of water and filtering) and keep at 55°-6o° 
for 15-30 minutes. Dilute, allow to settle, decant off the hquid, wash 
the residue once or twice by decantation, and finally treat with i per cent 
sodium hydrate. 

This method is more laborious than the two following methods and 
has no advantage except in the case of delicate tissues. If quantitative 
determinations of starch are made, the residue after the malt digestion 
may be used for microscopic examination. 

Hydrochloric-acid Method? Mix 5 grams of the flour in a casserole 
with 500 cc. water, heat to boiling, add 5 cc. concentrated hydrochloric 
acid and boil for 15 minutes. After allowing to settle, decant off the super- 

* Schimper, Anleitung zur mikroskopischen Untersuchung der vegetabilischen Nahr- 
ungs- u. Genussmittel. Jena 1900, 17. 

^ Ber. d. deutsch. Chem. Ges. 14, 2449. 

^ Various modifications of this method have been described by Moeller, Schimper, and 
other authors. 



56 GRAIN. 

natant liquid and mount the deposit of bran elements either in water, 
chloral or dilute alkali. 

Lauck's Method ^ is the same as the crude-fiber method (p. 17) 
except that 2.5 per cent sodium hydrate is-used and the solution is boiled 
but 5 minutes. 

The treatment dissolves completely the starch, proteids and fat, thus 
making the tissues very transparent, but it also distorts the hairs by 
swelling the walls, and for that reason is not suited for the detection of 
wheat flour in rye flour, or vice versa. 

Of the processes for accumulating and clearing the tissues, Schimper's 
scum method has the least action on the cell- walls, Steinbusch's diastase 
method somewhat more, the hydrochloric-acid method still more, while 
Lauck's method is most energetic of all. The methods are arranged 
according to the intensity of their action. 

VogPs Naphthylene-hlue Method? Thoroughly mix 2 grams of the 
flour with a small quantity of a solution of o.i gram of naphthylene blue 
in a mixture of 100 cc. absolute alcohol and 400 cc. water. Transfer 
to a slide, allow to dry and examine in sassafras oil or some other essen- 
tial oil or else in creosote or guaiacol. After this treatment the pericarp 
coats and contents of the aleurone cells and germ tissues appeaf bright 
blue or violet-blue, and the walls of the aleurone cells light blue, while 
the tissues and contents of the starch cells remain colorless and arc ren- 
dered transparent by the mounting medium. 

BamihPs Test (p. 70). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See Bibliography of Wheat. 

Bread. 

Bread, in the broad sense of the word, including biscuit, cakes and 
other cereal oven products, is made either from the flour of one cereal or 
of several cereals. It is raised commonly either with yeast, baking-powder 
(or an equivalent), or eggs. 

The examination of bread is much more difiicult than that of flour, 
partly because other vegetable materials are present, and partly because 
the starch grains of the flour are much distorted by baking. 

' Vereinbarungen zur einheitlichen Untersuchung u. Beurtheilung von Nahrungs- u. 
Genussmitteln. Berlin, Heft II, 1899, 23. 

^ Die wicht. vegetab. Nahr.- u. Genussm. Berlin and Wien 1899, 17. 



BREAD. CATTLE FOODS. 



57 



The histological elements include the distorted starch grains (Fig. 31), 
more or less bran tissues, and if yeast was used as the leavening agent, 
cells of the yeast plant. 

Of the methods of examination described under Hour, the diastase 
method, the hydrochloric-acid method, and the crude fiber process,* are 




Fig. 31. Starch Grains from \\'heat Bread, a typical forms, little altered; h broken and 

swollen forms. (Moeller.) 

also suited for the examination of bread, provided the material is iirst 
dried and ground to a moderate degree of fineness. 

Chemical examination includes determinations of the usual proximate 
constituents, tests foi* alum and other baking chemicals, and, in the case 
of highly colored products, tests for artificial color. 

Cattle Foods. 

Mill Products. The mill products of wheat, rye, barley, rice and 
buckwheat, are more commonly consumed by the human family, only 
the by-products being cheap enough for cattle foods. Among the most 
important mill products designed especially for cattle, are maize meal, 
ground oats, and provender (a mixture of maize meal and ground oats). 
Of lesser importance are meals made from the chaffy wheats, sorghum, 
millet, and other cereals. These products are much coarser than fiour 
designed for human use, and are invariably prepared from the whole 
kernel without separation of the bran or adhering chaff. 

Mill By-products include the offals of flour mills, breakfast-food 
factories and some other industries. Among the most important materials 
are screenings, bran, and middlings, from wheat, rye, barley, maize, buck- 
wheat, and rice, also more or less analogous materials designated by special 



58 GR/flN. 

names, such as hominy feed, oat feed, etc. These products, with the excep- 
tion of screenings, which is treated in a separate chapter (pp. 145, 163), 
are described under the different cereals. 

All of these materials contain starch grains in their original form. 

By-products from the Manufacture of Starch and Glucose. In 
Europe starch and glucose are made chiefly from wheat or potatoes, in 
the United States almost exclusively from maize. 

In the American factories, whether starch or glucose is the final product, 
the germ is first separated from the remainder of the grain and subjected 
to pressure to remove the oil. The oil-cake is similar to the cake of 
true oil seeds in that it contains no starch, but a high percentage of pro- 
teid and a considerable amount of residual oil. 

Starch is separated mechanically from the remainder of the grain in 
a wet way and is purified for cooking and laundry purposes, or is con- 
verted by acid into glucose. 

The dried residues from the processes are Ivnown as gluten meal, 
gluten feed, starch feed, etc. (p. 96). As they are dried at a rather high 
temperature the starch grains are distorted or entirely disorganized. 

Brewery and Distillery By-products include malt sprouts, brewery 
grains and distillery grains. 

Malt sprouts are the worm-hke radicles removed from sprouted barley. 
They are quite simple in structure, and contain no starch in any form fp. 86). 

Malt and distilled liquors may be made from any of the cereals. In 
Europe barley, rye and wheat are chiefly employed ; in the United States, 
barley, rye and maize; in Japan, China, and India, rice and to some 
extent sorghum. 

As the starch originally present in the grain is converted successively 
into sugar and alcohol, the residue or "grains" contain no appreciable 
amount of starch. Both wet and dry grains are used for feeding. 

Chaff of oats, barley, rice, and weed seeds, also maize cob and buck- 
wheat hulls, although of little value except for packing or fuel, are used 
for cattle foods, especially when mixed with more valuable material. 

Oat and barley hulls are obtained in the factories where oatmeal and 
pearl barley are made and are ingredients of certain proprietary cattle 
foods containing, in addition to cereal constituents, some concentrated 
food, such as cottonseed meal or Hnseed meal. 

Rice hulls, maize cob, peanut shells, and coft'ee hulls, notwithstanding 
their lack of valuable nutrients and their harsh woody structure, are not 
infrequently met with in cattle foods, especially as adulterants of bran. 



CATTLE FOODS. 59 



Methods of Examination. 



Preliminary Examination. The material should first be spread out 
on a paper and fragments of a suspicious nature picked out with forceps. 
This search is usually facihtated by separating the material by means of 
a series of sieves into several portions of different degrees of fineness. 
Many times impurities, such as chaff, insect remains, mouse excrement, etc., 
may be identified with the naked eye or under a lens, akhough more often 
positive identification is not possible without recourse to the microscope. 

In bran the black hulls of cockle or of black bindweed are often present, 
the former being characterized by the rough outer surface, the latter by 
the smooth but dull surface and the regular shape of the larger fragments. 

Foxtail (Setaria) is recognized by the mottled color and the transverse 
wrinkles on the flowering glumes and other weed seeds by the characters 
learned from the descriptions, as well as by comparison with standard 
specimens. 

Rice hulls or chaff, even in quite small pieces, are recognized under a 
lens by their rough surface and straw-yellow color; oat hulls by the smooth 
convex surface; barley hulls by their smooth but ribbed surface; corn- 
cob by the hard fragments of the woody zone, and the hard glumes, also 
by the papery thin glumes, often of a red color. 

The bran coats of wheat and rye are rather soft, of a reddish or buff 
color; those of maize tough and horny, either white, yellow or red (rarely 
blue) ; those of oats and rice, thin and delicate, of a brownish-yellow color. 

These are but a few of the macroscopic characters which either furnish 
positive evidence, or serve as a guide for microscopic examinations. The 
eye of the microscopist as well as his senses of taste, smell, and touch soon 
becomes trained to note very sHght pecuharities, which often leads him 
to form an opinion before he has looked in his microscope. 

The Chemical Analysis of fodders commonly includes the determina- 
tion of water, ash, protein (Nx6^), crude fiber, nitrogen-free extract 
(by difference) and fat. Determinations of starch, sugars, pentosans and 
albuminoid nitrogen are rarely desirable. 

Microscopic Examination. As the cereal products and by-products 
used for cattle food are for the most part coarsely ground, and contain 
considerable amounts of the bran coats or chaff, their identification is 
usually easier than that of fiour and other products consisting largely 
of starchy matter in the form of a fine powder. 

Direct Examination. For the identification of starch grains an ex- 



6o GRAIN. 

amination is made in water either of the fine powder separated from 
the coarse by sifting, or of a finely-ground sample of the whole material. 
Coarse fragments of a starchy nature picked out with the forceps are 
crushed, scraped or sectioned and likewise examined in water. Exami- 
nation with the aid of polarizing apparatus is often useful. 

Treatment with Reagents. Fragments of bran or chaff may also be 
examined directly in water, but much better results are secured after 
first dissolving the starch and other interfering substances, either by 
boiling for a moment in water on the slide (always under a cover-glass), 
or by mounting in dilute alkali or in chloral hydrate. 

It is often convenient to examine the finely-ground material or iso- 
lated fragments, first in cold water, then after treatment with a small 
drop of iodine tincture, again after boiling, and still again after treatment 
with a small drop of 5 per cent potash or soda solution. 

Crude-fiber Process. As most cattle foods contain a considerable 
amount of the bran coats and other tissues, there is commonly no need 
of resorting to the methods described under flour, as a means of accumu- 
lating the tissues from a rather large quantity of the material, although 
as a means of clearing the tissues, some of these methods, particularly 
Lauck's method, or what is practically the same thing, the crude-fiber 
process, are occasionally useful. After weighing the fi.ber a portion 
obtained in the rj[uantitative determination of crude fiber may be used 
for microscopic examination, as the subsequent determination of ash 
in this fiber is not appreciably affected by the removal of the small quan- 
tity necessary for the purpose. 



CEREALS iGrainhiecs). 

Most grasses are hermaphrodite, the organs essential to fertilization 
being in the same blossom, although in some blossoms either the male 
or female element is abortive. ]\Iaize is, however, monoecious, the flowers 
of the tassels being entirely male, those of the ear entirely female. 

The inflorescence is in panicles, racemes, or spikes, made up of spike- 
lets (Fig. 32, i4), each consisting of two lower scales {empty glumes) on 
opposite sides of the axis, and one or more flowers {B), each usually 
inclosed by two scales, the one {flowering glume) situated on the 
outer side, the other {palet) two-veined and two-keeled, situated on 
the inner side Avith its back toward the axis. Sometimes the flower is 



CEREALS. 



inclosed by only one scale, in which case it is the palet that is lacking. 
Two minute hyaline scales {lodicules) are commonly present at the base 
of the flower and rarely a third occurs within the palet. The beard 
of the spikelets consists of coarse bristles, often barbed, which may be 
borne on the glumes or palets, in which case they are known as awns 
(e.g., wheat), or may spring from the base of the spikelet (e.g., Setaria). 
Commonly there are three stamens (rarely one, two, four, or six) with 
slender filaments and versatile anthers. The pistil has a one-celled 
ovary containing a single ovdle, and one to three styles with feather- 
like stigmas. The flowering glume and palet, although free at the time 




Fig. 32. Wheat (Triticum sativum). A spikelet with four flowers; B single flower; C 
whole fruit or caryoj)sis; I) fruit in longitudinal section, i and 2 empty glumes; b 
flowering glumes; v palets; e embryo. (Schumann.) 

of flowering, sometimes become closely adherent to the fruit during 
ripening (e.g., barley), or so closely envelop it that they are not sepa- 
rated by threshing (e.g., oats). 

In general appearance the cereal grains resemble seeds, but a study 
of their development clearly shows that they are true fruits'. Each con- 
sists of a single fruit leaf with edges rolled over and grown together, the 
groove on the ventral side of wheat and other grains marking the line of 
juncture. 

The fruit (Fig. 32, D; Fig. 62) consists of the bulky endosperm and the 
small embryo embedded in the endosperm at the base of the grain on the 
dorsal side, the whole being encased by the pericarp and spermoderm. The 
outer cell-layer of endosperm (in barley, two or more of the outer layers) 
contains proteid matters but no starch; the larger part of the endosperm, 
however, is a mass of large cells closely packed with starch grains. In 
the embryo three distinct parts are evident: the plumule, consisting 
of undeveloped leaves, the radicle or rootlet, and attached to these on 
the side adjoining the endosperm, the scutelliim (cotyledon), which at 
the time of sprouting draws the nutritive matter from the endosperm and 



62 GRAIN. 

conveys it to the young plantlet. The embryo contains fat and proteid 
but no starch. 

Microscopic Characters of the Cereals. 

The Glumes and Palets have much the same structure as the leaves 
of which they are but modifications, and normally contain four distinct 
tissues : 

1. The Outer Epidermis is made up largely of cells with wavy outline, 
arranged end to end in rows. Usually these wavy cells are strongly 
elongated, and between them are interposed isodiametric cells often 
extended beyond the surface as hairs ("siHca cells") and twin cells, one 
of the twins being usually crescent-shaped. 

2. The Hypoderm consists of one or more layers of sclerenchyma 
elements resembling bast fibers. This layer is imperfectly developed or 
entirely absent in the thin glumes and palets. 

3. Spongy Parenchyma, corresponding to the mesophyl of leaves, 
makes up the third layer of variable thickness. In oats these cells are 
star-shaped, but in the other cereals they are more or less rectangular 
in form. 

4. The Inner Epidermis is usually of thin-walled cells with less striking 
characters than the outer epidermis. Hairs are often present. 

The Pericarp differs greatly in the number of layers and the form of 
the cells, but in general consists of four distinct tissues: 

1. The Epicarp of porous cells, with or without hairs at the apex of 
the grain. 

2. The Hypoderm and Mesocarp, often of porous cells. 

3. The Cross Cells (so named by Wigand), a layer of cells transversely 
extended. 

4. The Tube Cells (so named by Vogl) or endocarp, consisting of 
detached vermiform cells longitudinally arranged. 

The Spermoderm of thin-walled cells is usually inconspicuous. 

The Perisperm, or nucellar layer, also known as the hyahne layer, 
usually forms a thin coat of one or two layers of colorless, more or less 
obliterated cells, which, with suitable preparation and under favorable 
conditions, may be seen in surface view. In the case of sorghum, the 
layer is conspicuous and of diagnostic value. 

The Endosperm, i. The so-called " Aleurone Cells, " or "gluten cells" 
— both misnomers, as they contain neither aleurone grains nor gluten — 
form several layers in barley, but only one layer in other cereals. These 



CEREALS. 63 

cells have thick walls, and contain protcid matter and fat but no 
starch.^ 

2. The Starch Parenchyma, which makes up the great bulk of the 
fruit, is closely packed with starch grains varying greatly in shape and 
size according to the species. 

Embryo. The cells are small and, Hke the aleurone cells, contain 
much oil and proteid matter but no starch. 

Analytical Keys to the Cereals and Graminaceous Weed Seeds, 

I. Key Based on the Structure 0} the Thick Glumes and Palets. 

A. Outer epidermis of cells with wavy side walls, interspersed with circular cells (often 

forming hairs) and twin cells. 

(a) Spongy parenchyma of star-shaped cells. 

1. Circular cells forming conical hairs; saw-edge of hairs on keel of palet. . . Oats. 

(b) Spongy parenchyma of rectangular cells. 

2. Circular cells and saw-edge of hairs as in oats. 

Spelt, Emmer, One-grained Wheat. 

3. Circular cells as in oats; no saw -edge of hairs on palet Barley. 

4. Circular cells represented by hair scars Sorghum. 

5. Circular cells large and porous; wavy cells often very short Darnel. 

6. Circular cells porous with wavy side walls; wavy cells long Chess. 

B. Outer epidermis of porous and non-porous cells, with thick, but not wavy walls, 

interspersed with hairs. 

7. Cells on the papery ends with thin wavy walls Maize. 

C. Outer epidermis mostly of one kind of cell with thick deeply sinuous side walls. 

(a) Epidermal cells broader than long, colorless. 

8. Surface rough; spongy parenchyma of rectangular cells Rice. 

(b) Epidermal cells somewhat longer than broad, colorless, or mottled. 

9. Surface smooth, colorless Common Millet. 

10. Surface with narrow wrinkles, colorless German Millet. 

11. Surface with narrow wrinkles, mottled Green Foxtail. 

12. Surface with broader wrinkles, mottled Yellow Foxtail. 

^ The early microscopists, believing that the outer starch-free layer of the endosperm was 
the seat of the gluten of the grain, gave to these cells the name gluten cells. Schenk, how- 
ever, in 1872 showed that gluten, like starch, was present only in the inner endosperm cells, 
and Johannsen in 1883 reached the conclusion that the contents of the so-called gluten cells 
were aleurone grains embedded in fat. During thi past twenty years the name aleurone 
cell has been slowly taking the place of the earlier name. v. Hohnel, Berthold, and other 
authors have not only accepted this view, but have used the size of the so-called aleurone 
grains as a means of distinguishing the different cereals, a procedure which has been severely 
criticized by Wittmack, Moeller, and others. 

Recently Brahm and Buchwald have found that the name aleurone cells is quite as erroneous 
as the earlier term, since what appear to be aleurone grains embedded in fat are really fat 
globules in a ground substance of amorphous proteid matter. They state that a more exact 
name would be "protein cells", or, better still, "starch-free peripheral cells" of the endosperm. 



64 GRAIN 

II. Key Based on the Structure of the Bran Tissues. 

A. Cross cells elongated polygonal, side by side in rows, forming a continuous layer. 

(a) Side walls of cross cells thick, distinctly beaded. 

1. Hairs less than i mm. long with narrow lumen Wheat. 

2. Hairs often over i mm. long Spelt. 

(b) Side walls of cross cells indistinctly beaded. 

3. End walls often swollen; hairs with broad lumen Rye. 

4. End walls of cross cells thin (not swollen) Emmer. 

5. Cross cells as in rye, hairs as in wheat One-grained Wheat. 

(c) Walls of cross cells thin, not beaded. 

6. Cross cells in two layers Barley. 

7. Hairs long, narrow at base Oats. 

8. Fungus layer usually present Darnel. 

B. Cross cells vermiform, forming an interrupted layer. 

9. Epicarp cells transversely elongated; walls non-porous; end walls deeply 
sinuous Rice. 

10. Epicarp and hypoderm with wavy beaded side walls Sorghum. 

f Common Millet, German 

11. Epicarp with wavy side walls, not beaded •{ Millet, Green Foxtail^ 

[ Yellow Foxtail.' 

C. Cross cells forming spongy parenchyma. 

12. Cells with long narrow arms; epicarp and mesocarp of s rongly developed, 

elongated, beaded cells; endosperm thin-walled Maize. 

13. Cells star-shaped or irregular; epicarp not beaded; mesocarp undeveloped; 

endosperm thick-walled Chess. 

///. Key Based on the Characters of the Starch Grains. 

A. Large starch grains mostly over 20 n, round with indistinct hilum; feeble crosses, 

with polarized light. 

1. Many grains over 50 /< Rye. 

2. Few grains over 50 ,". Wheat, Spelt, Emmer, One-grained Wheat. 

3. No grains over 50 /« Barley. 

B. Large starch grains mostly over 15 /«, polygonal or round, with distinct hilum. 

4. Distinct crosses with polarized Hght Maize, Sorghum. 

C. Grains less than 20 /< mostly polygonal, often in round or ellipsoidal aggregates. 

5. Occasionally spindle-shaped grains Oats. 

6. No spindle-shaped grains.^ Rice, Darnel. 

D. Grains less than 20 /(, mostly polygonal, never in rounded aggregates. 

{Common Millet, German 
Millet, Green Fo.xtail, 
Yellow Foxtail.' 

E. Grains less than 20 /<, ellipsoidal. 

8. Hilum elongated, very distinct Chess. 

* Distinction by tissues of chaff. 



WHEAT. 65 



WHEAT. 



Common wheat (Triticum sativum var, vulgare (Vill.) Hackel), the 
most important of the bread cereals, is grown throughout the temperate 
regions of the earth. The numerous cultivated varieties differ greatly 
in habit of growth, hardiness, presence or absence of beards, and also in 
the form, size, and color, of the grain, but they are commonly grouped in 
two classes: the "Winter Wheats," or those sown in the fall and therefore 
adapted only to the warmer regions, and the "Spring or Summer Wheats," 
including the varieties grown in colder countries. 

The grain of all these cultivated varieties readily separates from the 
chaff on threshing, and is termed "naked wheat" in contradistinction to 
the spelts, which, like barley and oats, are closely invested by the chaff. 

Other species and varieties of wheat yielding naked grains are Pohsh 
wheat (T. Polonicum L.), Enghsh wheat {T. sativum var. turgidum (L.) 
Hackel), macaroni, hard or glass wheat [T. sativum var. durum (Desf.) 
Hackel), and hedgehog, or dwarf wheat {T. sativum var. com pactum 
(Host.) Hackel). 

The grain of common wheat (Fig. 32, C and D) is oval in longitudinal 
section, heart-shaped in transver&e section. Other characteristics are the 
slightly -keeled back with a pronounced depression at the base marking the 
position of the embryo, the deep, longitudinal groove on the ventral side, 
and finally the beard on the end. In color the kernels vary from Hght 
yellow to brown. Rye kernels are longer, more slender, more pointed 
at the base, and of a darker color. 

The kernels of macaroni and English wheat resemble those of com- 
mon wheat in shape, but are larger. 

Polish wheat is distinguished from all the other wheats by its long 
(often 12 mm.), slender, rye-shaped kernels with a sharp-pointed base. 

HISTOLOGY. 

As the glumes and palets of all the varieties named remain with the 
straw on threshing, they do not enter into the composition of mill products, 
and their anatomy is for us of no moment. All the naked wheats have 
practically the same structure. * 

After soaking the grain for some hours in water cross-sections may 
be cut with a razor or microtome, and surface preparations obtained by 
scraping. 



66 



GRAIN. 



Pericarp (Fig. 33, F). i. The Epicarp (Fig. 33, ep ; Fig. 34) is 
composed of colorless cells, which, except at the apex of the grain, 






-- p 




Fig. 53. Wheat. Cross section through bran coats and outer endosperm of fruit. F peri- 
carp consists of ep epicarp, m mesocarp, qu cross cells and sch tube cells; 5 consists 
of br spermodenn and h perisperm; endosperm consists of A' aleurone cells and E 
starch cells. X i6o. (Moeller.) 

are longitudinally elongated and are arranged end to end (but not 
side by side) in rows. A thin cuticle covers the outer wall. On treat- 




FiG. 34. Wheat. Epicarp in surface 
view. X 300. (Moeller.) 



Fig. 35. Wheat. Hairs from the apex 
of the grain. X300. (Moeller.) 



ment with potash, the walls swell and turn yellow. Seen in surface 
view, both the side and end walls appear distinctly beaded, the double 
side walls being about 4 /i thick. At the apex the cells are more nearly 



IV HE /IT. 



67 



isodiametric, and between them arise numerous hairs (Fig. 35) which 
vary up to i mm. in length and (measured near the base) up to 25 /« in 
diameter. Most of them are awl-shaped, with a more or less globular 
base, and, as Wittmack first noted, a narrow lumen or cell-cavity, the 
breadth of which is less than the thickness of the walls. 

2. The Mesocarp (Fig. t,t„ m), consists of two or three layers of cells, 
which differ little from those of the epicarp. 

3. Cross Cells (Figs. t,t, and 36, qu). Beneath the mesocarp is another 
layer of cells with' porous radial walls, but these are transversely elon- 
gated and, as may be seen in surface view, are arranged not end to end 
but side by side in rows. Over the larger part of the surface, the cells 



qu 




sch \^ 

Fig. 36. Wheat. Surface view of qu cross cells and sch tube cells. X 300. (Moeller.) 

are 100-200 n long and 15-25 /« broad, but in the region of the apex 
they are shorter and more irregular in form. The very distinctly porous, 
double side walls are about 7 // thick, but the end and outer walls are often 
much thinner, and the end walls are never swollen as in rye. Inter- 
cellular spaces occur rarely. Treatment with alkali imparts a yellow 
color, but does not appreciably swell any of the walls. 

This layer, from the diagnostic standpoint, is the most important of 
the bran tissues. 

4. Tiibe Cells (Figs. 2)C) ^^^ 36, sch). Instead of an unbroken layer 
of cells, the endocarp of wheat, as of most of the cereals, consists of more 
or less detached vermiform cells arranged parallel to the axis of the 
grain. Oftentimes two adjoining cells are in interrupted contact, with 
circular intercellular spaces formed by sharp bends in the walls, suggest- 



68 



GRAIN. 



ing that this layer is but disintegrated spongy parench}ina. Cross- 
sections of these cells are circular or elliptical. 

Spermoderm (Figs. 2)2) ^-^d 37, br). In cross-section, before treat- 
ment with reagents, the two layers of the spermoderm appear like yellow- 
brown, structureless membranes, the inner somewhat darker than the 
outer; but on treatment with Javelle water, the cell structure can often 
be recognized. Owing to their brown color, the layers are readily found 
in surface preparations. The thin- walled, elongated, pointed cells of 
the two layers cross one another. 




Fig. 37, ^^'heat. Surface view of sch tube cells, hr two crossing layers of the spermoderm, 
^ and /i perisperm. X300. (Moeller.) 

Perisperm (Figs. 33, 37 and 38, h). The remains of the nucellus or 
body of the ovule, known as the "nucellar layer," and by some authors 
because of its colorless, almost structureless appearance, as the "hya- 
line layer," can be seen in surface preparations only under the most 
favorable conditions. To differentiate this layer, as well as others of 
the grain, Moeller proceeds as follows: Warm a whole kernel with alkali, 
wash in water containing a drop of acetic acid, remove to a slide a per- 



WHEAT. 



69 




tion of the inner skin, which may be readily separated after this treat- 
ment, and gently press sidewise with a 
cover-glass. If zinc chloride iodine is 
now added, both cell layers of the spermo- 
derm are colored brown, the perisperm 
and the remaining coats blue. 

Endosperm, i. The Aleurone Layer 
(Figs. 2)3 ^I'^fl 38) K) is but one cell layer 
thick. These cells, rectangidar in trans- 
verse section, rounded polygonal in sur- 
face view, are 25-75 /< in diameter. 
Viewed in water, the double walls are 
about 7 [1 thick; but on treatment with 
alkali, they swell considerably and also 
take on a yellow color. This layer con- 
tains proteids but no starch. Often the 
nucleus of the cell is clearly seen, 
especially in surface mounts. 

2. Starch Parenchyma (Fig. 2>Zi ^)- 
The large, isodiametric, thin-walled cells 
contain starch grains (Fig. 39) of two 
forms: (i) large, lenticular grains, mostly 28-40 /x (rarely 50 /i) with 
indistinct rings and hilum; (2) small rounded or polygonal grains, usually 

less than 8 /(. The large 
grains lying on edge are 
more or less elliptical in 
outline ; with polarized light 
indistinct crosses dividing 
each grain into four equal 
parts are evident (Fig. 572, 
III). The small grains are 
detached members of aggre- 
gates, which are seldom 
found intact. 

Embryo. Tissues of the 
embryo show little differen- 
tiation. The cells arc small, 
seldom exceeding 25 /<. 
They contain fat and aleurone grains, but no starch. Treatment of sec- 



Fig. 38. Wheat, 
perisperm and 
X300. 




Surface view of h 
K aleurone cells. 

(MOELLER.) 



Fig. 39. Wheat Starch. X300. (Moeller.) 



7° GRAIN. 

tions with a mixture of iodine green or metliyl green and fuchsin stains 
the cell nuclei green, the alcurone grains red. In many of the cells 
the contents is largely nuclear substance. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Whole-wheat Products. Roasted Whole Wheat is used as a coffee 
substitute and adulterant. In over-roasted kernels it is often diflficult 
to identify the tissues. 

Graham Flour is the ground wheat kernel with nothing removed. 

Rolled Wheat, a popular breakfast food, is the wheat kernel rolled 
and sometimes partially cooked, but not ground. 

Shredded Wheat is prepared by shredding the kernel in machines of 
peculiar construction, and cooking. 

'■'■ Force,'''' ^'Malta-Vita,'" " Zest, ^^ and numerous proprietary foods, 
consist chiefly of wheat which has not only been cooked, but also sub- 
jected to a malting process, thus converting a portion of the starch into 
maltose and dextrines. They come into the market either granulated 
or flaked. 

These products contain all the histological elements of the wheat kernel; 
but in those which have been cooked, the starch grains are more or less 
distorted. The most characteristic tissues are the cross cells with dis- 
tinctly beaded side walls and thin (never swollen) end walls, and the hairs 
I mm. or less long with lumen thinner than the walls. 

Flour and Other Decorticated Wheat Products. Wheat Flour con- 
sists chiefly of the starchy portion of the grain with fragments of hairs 
which pass endwise through the bolts, and, less frequently, other tis- 
sues. The microscopist should note the size, form and deportment 
with polarized hght, of the starch grains, also the characters of the tissues 
accumulated by one of the methods described on pp. 55-56. 

In Europe rye flour is an occasional adulterant of wheat flour, and 
inferior wheat flour is a common adulterant of rye flour. Rye flour is 
characterized by the somewhat larger size of the starch grains and the 
presence of hairs with wide lumen. In America maize starch or flour 
is fraudulently added to wheat flour. Maize starch grains are identified 
by their size, polygonal form, and distinct crosses with polarized hght. 

Of great service in the identification of wheat flour, even in mixtures 
containing as httle as 10 per cent, is the test which was devised in 1852 by 
Bamihl, a Prussian custom-house official. A small portion of the flour and 
enough water to form a rather thick paste are thoroughly mixed on a slide 



IVHEylT. 71 

by rubbing with a cover-glass. Wheat flour yields by this treatment 
yellowish, stringy, glutinous masses in considerable amount, whereas maize 
flour yields only a very small amount, and rye flour none whatever. The 
test is of value in detecting wheat flour in buckwheat and rye flour. 

Wheat flour, if made into a dough and kneaded in a stream of water 
to wash away the starch, finally yields an elastic mass of gluten; other 
kinds of flour arc entirely washed away by this treatment and yield no 
gluten. 

Weed seeds and other impurities of flour are discussed on pp. 49-52, 
and methods of examination on pp. 52-56. 

Wheat Bread, Biscuit, and other bakers' products contain all the 
histological elements of flour, but the starch grains are more or less dis- 
torted (Fig. 31). In bread and other products raised with yeast, cells of 
the yeast plant are also present. 

"Grits," "Cream 0} Wheat," etc., are coarsely ground kernels freed 
from bran, and differ from flour chiefly in mechanical condition. 

By-products. Wheat Bran is an important cattle food, a common 
adulterant, and, after roasting, an ingredient of coffee substitutes. It 
consists largely of the pericarp, spermoderm, and gluten cefls, with frag- 
ments of the germ, and considerable adhering starch. The cross cells, 
hairs, and starch grains should be carefully noted. 

Among the accidental impurities of bran are the hulls and other ele- 
ments of various weed seeds. The black hulls of cockle are distinguished 
from those of black bindweed by their rough surface as well as by the 
characteristic tissues. Other weed seeds of wheat are considered on 

pp. 145-148. 

In bran adulterated with ground corn-cob, hard lumps of the woody 
zone, and hard glumes may be found under the dissecting lens, or by 
chewing the bran. These, as wefl as the white or red membraneous 
chaff, may be identified by the methods described on p. 96. 

Corn Bran, a common adulterant, is identified by the thick pericarp. 
Broom-corn waste, coffee hulls, peanut shells, and some other adulterants 
may also be detected by their microscopic characters. 

Wheat Middlings is a term used to describe various products inter- 
mediate between flour and bran, some being chiefly starch matter, others 
bran finely ground. 

Wheat Germs, separated from the flour and bran in the flour mills, 
are used both as a human food ("Fould's Wheat Germ") and as a cattle 
food. They are much smaller in size than those of maize, the only other 



72 GRAIN. 

cereal from which the germs are removed on a commercial scale; but 
when finely ground cannot be readily distinguished from them. 

Wheat Gluten, a by-product from the manufacture of starch, contains 
a preponderance of the nitrogenous materials (protein often 40 and some- 
times 60 or more per cent). The starch grains are more or less distorted. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Blyth (5); Bohnier (6, 23); 
Hanausek, T. F. ^16, 17); Harz (18); Hassall (18); Leach (25); Mace (26); 
Meyer, A. (27); Moeller (29, 32); Planchon et Collin (34); Schimper (37); Tschirch 
u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (43, 45); Wittmack (10). 

Balland: Sur la falsification des farines avec le seigle, le sarrassin, le riz, I'orge, le 
mais, les feres et la fecule de pomme de terre. Jour, pharm. chim. 1899, 9, 239, 286. 
Bamihl: Pogg. Ann. 1852, 161. 

Barnstein: Roggen und Weizen. Landw. Vers.-Stat. 1902, 06, 25. 
Baumann: Nachweis von Maisstarke im Weizenmehl. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm. 



iJ 



9 



Benecke: Zum Nachweise der Mahlprodukte des Roggens in den Mahlprodukten des 

Weizens. Landw. Vers.-Stat. 1889, 36, 337. 
Berthold: Ueber den mikroskopischen Nachweis des Weizenmehles im Roggenmehle. 

Ztschr. f. landw. Gewerbe. Beilage, 1883. 
Bessey: The Structure of the Wheat Grain. Bull. Neb. Agr. Exp. Sta. 1894, 32. 
Brahm und Buchwald: Eotanische und chemische Untersuchungen an prahistorischen 

Getreidekornern aus alten Graberfunden. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm. 1904, 

7, 12. 
Collin: Examen microscopique des farines de ble. Jour, pharm. chim. 1898, S, 97, 

150, 200. 
Danckwortt: Ueber Mehluntersuchungen (Bamihl'sche Probe). Arch. Pharm. 187 1, 

145, 47. 
Haberlandt: Wissensch.-prakt. Untersuch. auf d. Geb. des Pflanzenbaues. 1, 162. 
Hanausek, T. F.: Zur mikroskopischen Unterscheidung des Weizen- und Roggen- 

mehles. Ztschr. allg. osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1887, 25, 143. 
Hanausek, T. F.: Ueber die Untersuchung der Mehle. Oesterr. Chem.-Ztg. 1899, 

2, 103. 
Hanausek, T. F.: Ueber die Griffigkeit der Mehle. Oesterr. Chem.-Ztg. 1900, 3, 54. 
V. Hohnel: Die Starke und die Mahlprodukte. Kassel und Berlin, 1882. 
Johannsen: Studien iiber die Kleberzellen der Getreidearten. Bot. Centralbl. 1883, 

15, 305- 
Jumelle: Sur le constitution du fruit des Graminees. Comp. rend. 1888, 10", 285. 
Kleeberg: Ueber einen einfachen Nachweis von Weizenmehl im Roggenmehl. Chem. 

Ztg. 1892, 107T. 
KoRXiCKER und Werner: Handbuch des Getreidebaues. Berlin, 1885. 
Kraemer: An Examination of Commercial Flour. Jour. Am. Chem. Soc. 1899, 21, 650. 
Krasser: Mikroskopische Priifung des Grieses. Ztschr. allg. osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 

1897, 35, 543. 



IV HE AT. SPELT. 73 

Krutizky: On Some Peculiarities in the Structure of the Caryopsis of Wheat. 

Uebers. Leist. Gebiet. Bot., in Russland wahrend 1891, St. Peters' g, 1893, 62; 

also in Just's Bot. Jahresb. 1893, 21, I Abth. 571. 
Kudelka: Ueber die Entwicklung und den Bau der Frucht- und Samenhaut unserer 

Cerealien. Dissertation, Berlin, 1875. 
Lange: DieMikroskopischeUntersuchungvon Mehl. Ztschr. angew. Mikrosk. 1896, 

369- 
Lebbin: Arch. Hyg. 28, 212. 

Le Roy: Zum Nachweis von Siigespanen im Mehl. Chem. Ztg. 1898, 31; 1899, 264. 
Maurizio: Kleberverteilung im Getreidekorn. Landw. Vers. -Stat. 1902, 5", 405. 
Maurizio: Getreide, Mehl und Brot. Berlin, 1903. 

Moeller: Die Mikroskopie der Cerealien. Pharm. Centralh. 1884, 2o, 507. 
Nevinny: Ueber Verunreinigung von Mehlen. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1887, 1, 

205, 244. 
Schlickum: Morphologischer und anatomischer Vergleich der Kotyledonen und ersten 

Laubblatter der Keimpflanzen der Monokotylen. Dissertation, Marburg, 1895. 
Spaeth: Nachweis des Mutterkorns im Mehl. Pharm. Centralh. N. F. 1896, 17, 542. 
Stutzer: Nahrungs- und Genussmittel. Handbuch d. Hyg. 3, 243. 
Tardien: Eichelmehl enthaltendes Weizenmehl. Ann. chim. analyt. 1898, 3, 307. 
Vaudin: Sur un element d'erreur dans la recherche du riz ajoute a la farine de froment. 

Jour, pharm. chim. 1899, 9, 431. 
Vinassa: Ueber mikroskopische Mehluntersuchung. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 

1895, 9, 53. . . 

Vogl: Die gegenwanig am haufigsten vorkommenden Verfalschungen und Verunreuii- 

gungen des Mehles, etc. Wien, 1880. 
Waage: Zur Unterschcidung von Weizen- und Roggenmehl. Apoth.-Ztg. 1892, 7, 

430. 
Weinwurm: Ueber die Verteilung der einzelnen Bestandteile des Roggen- und Weizen- 
kornes auf die verschiedenen Mahlprodukte. Oesterr.-ungar. Ztschr. Zuckerind. 

1890, 19, 163. 
Weinwurm: Ueber eine qualitative und quantitative Bestimmung von Weizenmehl 

im Roggenmehl. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.- u. Genussm. 1898, 1, 98. 
Wittmack: Sitzgsber. des bot. Ver. f. d. Prov. Brandenburg, 1882, 4- 
Wittmack: Anleitung zur Erkennung organischer und unorganischer Beimengungen 

im Roggen- und Wiezenmehle. Leipzig, 1884. 
Woy: Vorbereitung von Mehlproben zur mikroskopischen Untersuchung. Ztschr. 

oflfentl. Chem. 1900, <>, 213. 
Anon: Kartoffelfaser als Falschungsmittel fur Kleie. Pharm. Centralh. 1896, 181. 

SPELT. 

The three so-called "chaffy wheats," speh, emmer, and one-grained 
wheat, differ from the common varieties in that the threshed grain, Hke 
oats, is closely invested by the chaff. 

In ancient times speh {T. sativum Spdta (L.) Hackel) was one of the 



74 GRAIN. 

leading cereals of Egypt, Greece, and Rome, but at the present time is 
of comparatively little importance. Its culture is limited chiefly to 
Southern Germany (particularly Wurtemberg), Switzerland, and Spain, 
and is slowly giving place to more valuable cereals. 

Each of the more or less four-sided, loosely arranged spikelets con- 
sists of two truncate empty glumes clasping two to three flowers. The 
flowering glumes are thin, many-nerved, awned or awnless; the palets 
are still thinner, two-keeled. Some varieties have smooth, others hairy 
chaff. The grain is triangular with a dense beard. On threshing, the 
axis breaks at the joints and remains attached to the chaffy spikelets. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The Empty Glumes are thick, and of horny texture, except on the 
very edges, where they are membranous. 

1. Outer Epidermis. As is true of most chaffy envelopes of cereals, 
the outer epidermis consists of elongated cells with wavy walls, "twin 
cells", one of which is more or less crescent-shaped, and circular cells, 
the latter often being extended beyond the surface in the form of hairs. 
Except on the edges, the cell-walls are thickened. Stomata occur in 
rows along the nerves. 

2. Hypoderm. Several rows of thick-walled fibers are present ex- 
cept on the edges. 

3. Spongy Parenchyma occasionally is present beneath the nerves, 
but does not form a continuous layer. 

4. The Inner Epidermis is much hke the outer epidermis, with thick 
wavy-walled, elongated cells, twin cells, circular cells, and stomata. 

The Flowering Glume is thinner than the empty glumes. 

1. TJie Outer Epidermis is practically the same as that of the empty 
glumes. 

2. The Hypoderm Fibers are thin- walled and form only a thin layer, 

3. Spongy Parenchyma. Rectangular spongy parenchyma cells form 
a continuous and well-developed layer in the central part of the glume, 
but arc lacking on the edges. 

4. Inner Epidermis. The cells are elongated polygonal and have ver}' 
thin walls, which are usually straight, but near the nerves are often wavy. 
Awl-shaped hairs with swollen bases are numerous, especially toward the 
apex. 

Palets. I. TJic Outer Epidermis is practically the same as in the 
other envelopes. Thick-walled, tooth-like hairs, up to 200 /( in length. 



SPELT. EMMER. ■ 75 

form a saw-edge on each of the two keels, much like those found on the 
palet keels of oats. 

2. Hypoderm Fibers with thin walls occur throughout, except at the 

very edges. 

3. Spongy Parenchyma is found only under the keels. 

4. Inner Epidermis. Thin-walled, elongated polygonal cells, and 
short, awl-shaped hairs with globular bases form the inner layer. 

Pericarp. The cells of the Epicarp and Mesocarp have thinner walls 
than those of wheat. Speh hairs are considerably longer than wheat 
hairs, often reaching 1500 a; the breadth of the lumen in some of them 
exceeds the thickness of the walls. The cross cells of wheat and spelt 
are very similar, though in the latter the walls are often not so thick nor 
so distinctly beaded. Tube cells occur in considerable numbers. The 
remaining layers are practically as described under wheat; the large 
starch grains, however, are somewhat smaller. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The products of spelt are grits, other coarse human foods, and fodders. 

Spelt chaff is distinguished from oat chaff by the rectangular cells 
of the spongy parenchyma. Rows of tooth-like hairs form a saw- 
edge on the palet keels of both spelt and oats but not of barley. Hairs 
1000-1500 IX long, such as occur on the epicarp of spelt, are seldom 
or never found in wheat. The cross cells and starch cannot be dis- 
tinguished with certainty from the same elements of wheat. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Hauptfleish: Die Spelzweizen. Landw. Vers. -Stat. 1903, 58, 65. 

Netolitzky: Mikroskopische Untersuchung ganzlich verkohlter vorgeschichtlicher 

Nahrungsmittel aus Tirol. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm. 1900, 3, 401. ^ 
Vogl: Die wichtigsten vegetabilischen Nahrungs- und Genussmittel. Berlin u. 

Wien, 1899, 75. 

EMMER. 

Two-grained, chaffy wheat, or emmer {Triticum sativum v^r. dicoccum 
(Schrank*) Hackel), a cereal cuUivated .since prehistoric times, is now 
of httle importance, its culture being limited chiefly to sections of South 
Germany, Switzerland, Spain, Servia, and Italy. 

The flattened, often hairy spikelcts are densely crowded in the spike. 



76 GRAIN. 

Both of the empty glumes are strongly keeled and narrow gradually to 
the blunt-pointed apex, the keel being prolonged into a short tooth. 

HISTOLOGY AND DIAGNOSIS. 

The glumes and palets agree closely in structure with those of spelt, 
and the same is usually true of the pericarp, except as regards the cross 
cells. These latter are thin-walled and, as was rightly noted by Haupt- 
fleisch, are even less distinctly beaded than the cross cells of rye. They 
are distinguished from the latter by the thin (not swollen) end walls. 
According to Hauptfleisch, the epicarp hairs of some varieties have broad 
lumens like rye hairs, but this distinction does not hold good for all 
varieties and cannot be depended on in diagnosis. The starch grains 
are slightly smaller than in common wheat. 



See Spelt, p. 75 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 



ONE=QRAINED WHEAT. 



So distinct are the macroscopic characters of one-grained wheat 
from the preceding varieties that it is classed as a separated species 
{T. monococcum L.). Only one fertile flower is present in each spikelet, 
hence the German name Einkorn and the Latin and English names 
above given. 

The empty glumes are rather thin, and have the nerve of the keel and 
the two side nerves continued as short teeth. Both the flowering glume 
and palet are membranous, the latter, on ripening, splitting longitudi- 
nally into two pieces. 

HISTOLOGY AND DIAGNOSIS. 

The glumes and palets have the same general structure as the cor-: 
responding parts of spelt, but the layers are not so robustly developed. 
Hauptfleisch has correctly observed that the awl-shaped hairs of the inner 
epidermis of the flowering glume are shorter than those of either spelt 
or emmer. In this layer the cell-walls, especially over the nerves, are 
often wavy. The epicarp hairs of one-grained and common wheat are 
not distinguishable, but the cross cefls in the former are thin-walled and 
indistinctly beaded much as in cmmcr and rye. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See Spelt, p. 75. 



RYE. 



RYE. 



77 



Rye (Secale cereale L.) is botanically closely related to wheat and 
ranks next to it in importance as a bread cereal. 

The naked kernels are longer, more slender, sharper keeled, sharper 
pointed at the base and darker colored than those of wheat; they are 
also not so plump nor so uniform in form, size, and color. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The rye kernel is in general structure the same as the wheat kernel, 
but some of the layers show differences in detail which are of great im- 
portance in diagnosis. Treatment of sections with cold alkah or chloral 
hydrate swells the walls of the epicarp, middle layer, and perisperm, 
and aids in differentiating them. 

Pericarp (Fig. 40). i. The Epicarp is distinguished from the cor- 
responding layer of wheat by the thinner and less distinctly beaded walls 
of the cells, and the thinner walls and broader lumens of the hairs (h). 
In both grains the epicarp cells are longitudinally elongated except at 
the apex, where they are more or less isodiametric. Often, but not al- 
ways, the lumen breadth of rye hairs is greater than the wall thick- 
ness. Even at the apex of such hairs the lumen is distinct, whereas in 
wheat hairs it is reduced to a faint line. 

2. The Mesocarp or Middle Layer is only one cell layer thick, and 
the Avails are thinner than in wheat, and less distinctly beaded. 

3. Cross Cells (qu). As in wheat, these cells cross those of the outer 
layers at right angles, and are further distinguished by the fact that they 
do not "break joints," but are arranged side by side in rows. They 
are 200 n or less long and 15-35 /-« wide. The side walls are thinner 
and less distinctly porous than in wheat; furthermore, the end walls 
are often rounded and swollen, with pronounced intercellular spaces, 
whereas in wheat they are thinner than the side walls and without spaces. 

4. The Tube Cells are not numerous. 

The Spermoderm and Perisperm of wheat and rye are hardly dis- 
tinguishable. 

Endosperm, i. The Aleurone Cells, according to Vogl, are smaller 
and thicker-walled than in wheat. Moeller notes that on treatment 
with alkali the cell-walls swell greatly (Figs. 41 and 42). 

2. The Starch Parenchyma contains starch grains (Fig. 43) of the 



78 



GRAIN. 



wheat type, but larger, a considerable number being over 50 [i. They 
often display delicate concentric rings, also fissures radiating from the 




gu- 



FiG. 40. Rye {Secale cereale). Outer bran layers in surface view. Epicarp consists of 
porous cells, A hairs and * hair scars; jj* cross cells. X300. (Moeller.) 

hilum. The small grains are round or angular, seldom in aggregates. 



DIAGNOSIS. 

Whole Rye Products. Roasted Whole Rye is a coffee substitute and 
adulterant. 



RYE. 



79 



Rye Graham Flour. The ground whole kernel is used for coarse bread. 
Starch grains (Fig. 43), cross cells (Fig. 40, qii), and hairs Qi) are the 
important elements. 

Rye Flour prepared by the usual bolting process is not so white nor 
so fine as wheat and usually contains more bran elements. As it does 





Fig. 41. Rye. Aleurone cells in water. 

X 300. (MOELLER.) 



Fig. 42. Rye. Aleurone cells 
warmed in alkali. (Moeller.) 



not contain gluten it does not yield a glutinous, stringy mass by the 
Bamihl test, described on p. 70. Furthermore, the dough gradually 
washes away on repeated kneading under running water. The large 
starch grains (larger than in wheat) often with radiating fissures (Fig. 43), 




Fig. 43. Rye Starch. X300. (Moeller.) 

the hairs (Fig. 40, h) with lumen breadth often greater than the wall 
thickness, and occasional fragments of cross cells {qu) must be relied on 
in identification. 

By-products. Rye Bran and Rye Middlings, well-known cattle foods, 
contain the coats of the grain and also more or less starch. The side 



So GRAIN. 

walls of the epicarp, mesocarp, and especially the cross cells (Fig. 40, qu) 
are thinner and less distinctly beaded than in wheat. Some (but not 
all) the cross cells have swollen end walls. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See Bibliography of Wheat, p. 72-73. 
Egger: Ueber das Vorkommen blaugefarbten Zellinhaltes in der Kleberschicht von 

Roggenkornern. Arch. Hyg. 1883, 1, 143. 
Gregory: Die Membranverdickungen der sogenannten Querzellen in der Fruchtwand 

des Roggens. Beitriige z. wissensch. Bot. 2, 165. 
Hanausek, T. F.: Zur Mikroskopie des von der Presshefe abgepressten Roggenmehles. 

Ztschr. allg. osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1894, 32, 416. 



BARLEY. 

Barley {Hordeuni sativum L.), one of the most ancient of the cereals, 
is still cultivated in the northern countries of the Old World as a bread 
grain, and throughout the temperate zone for the production of malt. 

The spikes consist of groups of three one-flowered spikclets arranged 
alternately on opposite sides of the zigzag rachis. In six-rowed barley 
{H. sativum var. hexastichon (L.) Hackel) and four- rowed barley {H. 
sativum var. vulgare (L.) Hackel) all of the flowers are fertile. In the 
former variety they form six equidistant, longitudinal rows, whereas 
in the latter only the middle flowers are arranged in distinct rows, alter- 
nating with two more, or less indistinct rows formed by the side flowers. 
Only the middle flowers of two-rowed barley {H. sativum var. distichon 
(L.) Hackel) are perfect, the side flowers being staminate or neuter and 
much reduced in size. The grain of six-rowed and four-rowed barley 
and of many two-rowed varieties is so closely adherent to the flowering 
glume and palet that it is not freed from them by threshing, but the grain 
of some of the two-rowed barleys is naked or hulless. 

Characteristic of the flowering glume are the five prominent ribs, 
the middle one being extended into a long awn, which, however, breaks 
o£F in threshing. The palet is grooved to correspond with the groove 
in the caryopsis, and is partially hidden from view by the overlapping 
glume. Both before and after the removal of the chaff, the grain is 
distinctly spindle-shaped. The groove on the ventral side of the cary- 
opsis and the depression over the embryo at the base of the dorsal side 
are the same as in wheat and rye. 



B/iRLEY. 



8i 



HISTOLOGY. 

Cross-sections are prepared without removal of the glume and palet. 
Successive treatments of the section with potash, dilute acetic acid, and 
chlorzinc iodine solution, or Javelle water and safranin, aids greatly in 
differentiating the layers. The glume and palet are readily separated 
after boihng with water. The layers of these, as well as of the caryopsis, 
are obtained for study by scraping, and may be cleared and stained in 
the same manner as the cross sections. 

The kernels of naked barleys are distinguished from the other varie- 
ties not only by the absence of chaff but also by their larger size and the 
thicker walls of the epicarp and middle layer. 








Fig. 44. Barley {Hoydeion sativum). Cross 
section of palet and outer layers of fruit. 
P palet; FS pericarp and spermoderm ; 
endosperm consists of al aleurone cells, 
and -E starch cells. X160. (Moeller.) 




Fig. 45. Barley. Palet in surface view. 
Outer epidermis consists of elongated wavy 
cells, h circular cells extended into short 
hairs, and $ twin cells; / hypoderm fibers. 
X300. (Moeller.) 



The Flowering Glume and Palet (Figs. 44, P) are each made up 
of four layers. 

I. The Epidermal Cells (Fig. 45) are strongly silicified and are of 
three forms. First, elongated cells with wavy side walls; second, small 
circular cells extended beyond the surface in the form of conical hairs 
(h); and third, crescent-shaped, hemi-eUiptical or circular cells occur- 



82 



GRAIN. 



ring usually in pairs {s). Examined in water, the thickened, convoluted 
double walls of the long cells appear to be of uniform structure; but on 
treatment with alkali, the zigzag middle lamella separating adjoining 
cells is clearly evident. 

2. Hypoderm (Fig. 44; Fig. 45, /). One to three layers of fibers with 
thick, porous walls, underlie the epidermis. 

3. Spongy Parenchyma (Fig. 44; Fig. 46, p). This layer consists of 
thin-walled, rectangular cells, either isodiametric or slightly elongated 
with numerous circular, elliptical or irregular intercellular spaces. 




Fig. 46. Barley. Surface view of p spongy paren- 
chyma of palet, ep inner epidermis of palet, 
and / epicarp. X 300. (Moeller.) 




Fig. 47. Barley. Outer epidermis 
with hairs from margin of palet. 
(Moeller.) 



4, Inner Epidermis (Figs. 44 and 48). Cross sections show this 
layer indistinctly; surface preparations, however, bring out the thin- 
walled, elongated epidermal cells, stomata, and rather short, thin-walled, 
awl-shaped hairs, often with swollen bases. 

Pericarp (Fig. 44). Little detail can be made out in cross sections 
mounted in water, but all the layers are evident on treatment succes- 
sively with potash, dilute acetic acid and chlorzinc iodine. 

I. Epicarp (Fig. 49). The cells have rather thin, porous walls. 
On the body of the grain they are longitudinally elongated; at the apex 
more nearly isodiametric. Vogl notes the occurrence of stomata. The 
numerous hairs which clothe the apex are less than 150 /« long. Some, 



BylRLEY. 



83 



like wheat hairs, have walls thicker than the lumen, others, Hke rye hairs, 
have lumen thicker than the walls. Usually they are broadened at the 
base. 




Fig. 48. Barley. Inner epidermis with h 
hairs and st stomata, from middle of 

palet. X300. (MOELLER.) 



Fig. 49. Barley. Epicarp with hairs. 

(MOELLER.) 



2. Mesocarp. Several rows of cells, similar to those of the epicarp, 
make up this layer. 

3. Cross Cells (Fig. 50, qu). Two rows of cross cells with non-porous 
walls scarcely 2 ji thick, are found in barley. Most of the cells are 
60-100 li long and 10-25 !^ wide, but in some parts they are nearly iso- 
diametric. In both layers intercellular spaces frequently occur at the 
angles, and to some extent between the side walls. 

4. Tube Cells (Fig. 50, sch) are not numerous. 

The Spermoderm consists of two layers of elongated cells, but in 
both layers the cells are longitudinally extended, not crossed as in wheat 
and rye. 

1. The Outer Layer (Fig. 50, ie) is composed of thin-walled cells, 
which can be clearly seen only after treatment with reagents. Chlor- 
zinc iodine brings out the bright yellow cuticle. 

2. The Inner Layer is composed of thick-walled cells. Treatment 
with potash greatly swells the walls, and subsequent addition of chlor- 



84 GRAIN. 

zinc iodine colors the swollen walls blue and the cuticle on the inner wall 
bright yellow, but does not affect the middle lamella. 

The Perisperm is often evident in section after soaking in dilute 
alkaU, but is rarely seen in surface view. 

Endosperm (Fig. 44). i. The Aleurone Layer (al) differs from that 
of all other cereals in that it is two to four cell-rows thick. In cross 
section the cells are square or radially extended, but in surface view, 





Fig. 50. Barley. Surface view of qu double layer 
of cross cells, sch tube-cells, and ie spermoderm. 

X300. (MOELLER.) 



biG. 51. Mall Sprouts. Epi- 
dermis with root hairs. 

(MOELLER.) 



rounded polygonal, 18-30 ix in diameter, with double walls 4 /< or more 
thick. 

2. Starch Parenchyma (E). Barley starch (Fig. 52) occurs in both 
large and small grains resembling closely those of wheat and rye, though 
smaller. The large, circular- or irregularly-shaped grains are commonly 
20-30 /t in diameter and seldom exceed 35 /i. As aggregates are uncom- 
mon, the smaller grains are for the most part rounded and have few if 
any angles. Concentric rings and hilum are often evident. 

DIAGNOSIS. 



Whole Barley Products. Malt, the most important barley product, 
is prepared by first sprouting the grain, thus converting the starch into 
maltose through the action of the diastase ferment. As soon as tliis con.- 



BARLEY. 85 

version is complete, the action of the diastase is stopped by heating, and 
the radicles, known as "malt sprouts," removed. Malt contains all 
the cellular elements of the grain but the radicles. 

Roasted Barley and roasted malt are common coffee substitutes and 
adulterants. 

Decorticated Products. Barley Flour is prepared for bread-making 
in some countries, and finer grades are used as food for infants and in- 
valids. 

Pearl Barley consists of the kernels denuded of the chaff and bran 
coats, and rounded. Tissues of the pericarp and spermoderm are found 
in the groove. 

Barley Farina or grits is a decorticated product in a coarse granular 
form. 

The characteristic elements of the decorticated products are the 
starch granules (Fig. 52), which are smaller than those of wheat or rye, 




Fig. 52. Barley Starch. X300. (Moeller.) 

the thick- and thin-walled hairs (Fig. 49), and occasional fragments of 
cross cells (Fig. 50, qu). 

By-products. Brewers^ Grains is the moist residue after extracting 
the sugars and other soluble materials from malt. Both wet and dry 
brewers' grains, also malt sprouts, are utilized as cattle foods. The glumes 
are distinguished macroscopically from oat glumes by the prominent 
ridges, and microscopically by the rectangular cells of the spongy paren- 
chyma (Fig. 46, p). The thin-walled hairs of the inner epidermis (Fig. 
48), the two layers of thin-walled cross cells (Fig. 50, qu), and the two 
or more layers of aleurone cells, further aid in diagnosis. 



86 GRAIN. 

Malt Sprouts are the vermiform radicles removed in preparing malt. 
Dried sprouts are used as a food for cittle. 

The central cyHnder, consisting of incipient vascular elements, ap- 
pears darker than the outer parenchyma zone. Numerous typical root 
hairs arise from the centers of epidermal cells (Fig. 51). 

Other Cattle Foods containing chaff, bran, germs and starchy matter 
are obtained in the manufacture of pearl barley, barley grits, etc. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Bohmer (6, 23); Hanausek, T. F. 
(10, 16, 17); Harz (18); Hassall (19); Leach (25); Mace (26); Moeller (29, 32); 
Planchon et Collin (34); Schimper (37); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin 
(42); Vogl (43, 45); Wittmack (10). 

Also see Bibliography of Wheat, pp. 72-73. 
Emmerling: Ueber eine einfache Unterscheidungsweise von Gersten-und Haferspelzen. 

Landw. Vers. -Stat. 1898, .50, i. 
Holzner: Die Bestandteile und Gewebeformen des bespelzten Gerstenkornes. Ztschr. 

gesamm. Brauwesen. 1888, 473. 
Zoebl: Der anatomische Bau der Fruchtschale der Gerste (Hordeum distichuni L.). 

Verhandl. Naturf. Ver. Briinn. 1889, 27, i. 
Zoebl: Beitrage zur Entwickelung des Gerstenkornes. Allg. Ztschr. f. Bierbrauerei u. 

Malzfabrikation. 1880. 



MAIZE. 

The fruit of maize or Indian corn {Zea Mays L.), a plant of American 
origin, is the leading cereal crop of the United States, the production 
being four times as great as that of wheat, and is also a valuable grain 
in Southern Europe. 

By far the larger part of the grain is used as food for cattle, swine, 
and poultr}^, though a considerable amount is consumed by the human 
family in the form of corn-bread, mush, hominy, and various corn-starch 
products. 

The varieties of maize cultivated in America are usually divided 
into five classes, viz. : dent corn (long kernels with a depression in the 
end), flint corn (kernels more nearly round, at the end smooth and con- 
vex), pop-corn (small kernels used for parching or "popping"), sweet 
corn (cooked green as a vegetable), and the less important soft corn. 
The numerous varieties belonging to each class var\^ greatlv as to 



MAIZE. 



87 



the number of rows of kernels on the cob, as to the size, form, and 
color of the kernels, the length and diameter of the cob, etc. Only 
the dent and flint varieties have any considerable importance as grain 
plants. 

An ear of maize consists of a thickened rachis or spindle, on which 
are inserted the closely-packed kernels 
with their accompanying chaff. The 
spindle and chaff together form the 
cob. 

The kernels of a maize ear spring 1%^ / ' , ,^,^,^^ 

from the cob transversely in pairs \\ik%l vliil // / \ //?'(' 





Fig. 53. Maize (Zea Mays). Cross sec- 
tion of ear looking toward the base. 
5 inner surface of lower empty glume 
seen behind flowering glumes and 
palets; 5 outer surface of upper 
empty glume; F axis; H depression; 
B bundle zone; M pith. Natural size. 

(WiNTON.) 



Fig. 54. Maize. Radial section of ear 
through the center of the kernels. 5 
and 5 empty glumes; s^ glume and 
S^ palet of perfect flower; 5* glume 
and S^ palet of rudimentary flower; P 
spongy Kning of thick glumes; U sur- 
face of woody zone beyond depression; 
H depression ; T denser portion of 
woody zone; B fibro-vascular bundle; 
M pith. X 4. (WiNTON.) 



and longitudinally in double rows. The arrangement is such that a plane 
perpendicular to the axis of the cob which passes through the bases of 
the pair in one double row will pass alternately between and through the 
bases of the pairs in the other double rows. Since the double rows of 
kernels are arranged in pairs, it follows that there are normally an even 
number of rows. In the early stages of ripening, the double rows are 
separated by marked grooves; but as the kernels approach maturity 
they become so crowded that the arrangement in pairs and double 



SB GRAIN. 

rows may not be outwardly apparent, but is evident on cutting into 
the cob. 

Fig. 53 shows a cross-section of an ear so cut as to leave three of the 
six pairs of kernels entire, alternating with three pairs of fruit cups in 
section; Fig. 54 shows a longitudinal section. The core of pith (M) 
is surrounded by a zone {B) containing numerous fibro-vascular bundles 
running longitudinally through the cob and this in turn by an outer 
woody zone bearing the fruit cups. The woody regions {T) beneath 
the double rows are separated from each other by thin radial partitions 
of soft tissues extending from the central pith nearly to the surface. 
These partitions can be traced the whole length of the cob separating 
the woody matter into strips which are arranged about the pith like the 
staves of a barrel. The strips of woody matter are pierced for the 
passage of the tissues connecting the kernels with the zone of vascular 
bundles. 

On the surface of the woody zone between the pairs of fruit cups is 
a transverse depression {H) clothed with hairs, which is more or less 
pronounced according to the dryness of the cob. The woody matter 
(7") about these depressions is of a darker color than in other parts, owing 
to its greater density. The cups in which the kernels rest are formed 
by six envelopes, viz. : two empty glumes (5 and s), the glume {s-) and 
palet (5^) of the perfect flower, and the glume {S^) and palet {S-) belong- 
ing originally to a rudimentary blossom. Both of the empty glumes are 
thick and horny with linings of spongy tissues (P) and thin ends re- 
sembling tissue paper. The other enveloping parts are entirely of this 
papery texture. Hairs occur at the bases of the thick glumes, espe- 
cially at their points of juncture, and also on the thin ends. The more 
or less flattened kernels are usually longer than broad in the dent \'a- 
rieties, but broader than long in the flint varieties. The ventral side 
(the side nearest the apex of the cob) is smooth and flat, while the dorsal 
side has a broad groove extending from the base of the kernel (where 
it is broadest and deepest) nearly to the apex. Beneath this groove is 
the unusually large germ (Fig. 62). 

HISTOLOGY. 

Spindle, i. The Epidermis overlying the woody zone in the depres- 
sions (Figs. 53 and 54, H) is made up of thin-walled cells of wavy out- 
line arranged more or less distinctly in rows (Fig. 55, ep). The hairs 



MAIZE. 



89 



{H, h) which spring from this epidermis are, in part, long, pointed, single- 
celled, with walls from one-third to one-sixth the thickness of the cavity, 




Fig. 57. Fig. 56. 

Fig. 55. Maize Cob. Surface view of ep epidermis and hy hypoderm in the depression 
{H, Figs. 53 and 54). H single-celled pointed hair; h blunt three-celled hair. X160. 

(WiNTON.) J N 1 • 

Fig. 56. Maize Cob. Radial section through depression {H, Figs. 53 and 54), showing 
epidermis with hairs, elongated and isodiametric sclerenchyma cells, fibro-vascular 
bundle and parenchyma of pith. X32. (Winton.) 

Fig. 57. Maize Cob. Transverse section through the elongated sclerenchyma of the 
woody zone. X160. (Winton.) 

and, in part, blunt, two or more celled, with exceedingly thin walls. 

In the region between the depressions and the base of the upper thick 



9° 



GRAIN. 



glume (Fig. 54, U), the epidermis is like that of the horny portion of 
the empty glumes (Fig. 59). 

2. Woody Zone. The sclerenchyma cells of the woody zone vary 
greatly, according to their location, in form, size, and in the thicloiess of 
the walls. The first layer beneath the epidermis in the depressions, as 



ep 



\st 




\l} 



Fig. 58. Maize Cob. Cross section of upper thick glume, ep epidermis with thick -walled, 
porous cells and thin-walled non -porous cells; st isodiametric cells; // longitudinally 
elongated sclerenchyma cells and fibro-vascular bundle; p parenchyma with compressed 
inner layers. Xi6o. (Winton.) 



seen in the surface view (Fig. 55, hy), consists of elongated cells with 
porous walls usually narrower than the lumen. The side walls are much 
thicker than those at the ends. 

The cells of several succeeding layers are long and fibrous with narrow 
lumen, and extend in curves parallel to the surface of the depressions 
(Fig. 56). ^ 

Proceeding inward from these layers, the cells gradually diminish in 



MAIZE. 



91 



length and increase in width until they are finally round or oval. At 
first this change in shape is accompanied by a thickening of the ceil- 
wall; but further inward the walls begin to diminish in thickness and 
continue to diminish until the cells lose the character of sclcrcnchyma. 
All the transitional forms from woody fiber to the thin parenchyma of 
the pith are noticeable. 




Fig. 59. Maize Cob. Outer epider- 
mis of an empty glume, consisting 
of porous and non-porous cells and 
base of hair. X 300. (Winton.) 



Fig. 60. Maize. Membranous glume in 
surface view, ep outer epidermis with 
H long one-celled hair, and h short, 
blunt 1-3 celled hairs; * hair scar; p 
inner epidermis. X160. (Moeller.) 



In cross-sections of the cob the thick cell-walls show not only numer- 
ous pores, but beautiful concentric marldngs (Fig. 57). 

3. Bundle Zone. The fibro-vascular bundles passing through the 
soft tissue between the woody zone and the pith have the characteristics 
pecuHar to endogenous plants. In longitudinal sections, spiral, annular, 
scalariform, and pitted vessels and thin-walled elongated sclerenchyma 
cells are conspicuous (Fig. 56). 

4. The Pith consists entirely of parenchyma with thin cell- walls which, 
under high power, are seen to be pierced by pores. 



92 



GRAIN. 




Fig. 6i. Maize Cob. Hairs from different 
parts. X 1 60. 0\'iNTOX.) 



Empty Glumes. Each of the thick glumes (Fig. 54, S, s) is composed 
of a horny lower portion and a thm papery tissue at the end. 

The structure of the horny portion 
appears in cross section in Fig. 58. 
The epidermis (Fig. 59) is composed 
of two forms of cells, one with thick 
porous walls, the other with thinner 
walls free from pores. Both forms 
are commonly rounded-rectangular, 
either isodiametric or somewhat elon- 
gated. The non-porous cells are some- 
times crescent-shaped, and often occur 
in pairs at more or less regular intervals, showing that they are analogous 
to the twin cells of other cereals. They are usually smaller than those 
with pores, although in some parts the difference in size is not so 
marked. In addition to these two forms 
of cells, hairs and well-developed sto- 
mata also occur in parts. The structure 
of the papery ends is Hke that of the 
thin glumes and palets. 

2. Sderenchyma (Fig. 58, st and //). 
The sclerench\Tna of the glumes extends 
from the epidermis nearly to the inner 
surface. In the first few layers, the cells 
are large, loosely arranged, more or less 
isodiametric, and have walls of mod- 
erate thickness; but further inward 
the cells are smaller, thicker walled 
and are longitudinally much elongated. 
The fibro-vascular bundles run among 
these elongated cells and parallel to 
them, 

3. Parenchyma (p). Toward the 
inner surface the cell-walls diminish in 
thickness and the sderenchyma passes 
finallv into parenchyma. The parenchyma cells of the inner layers are 
indistinct and much compressed. 

4. The Inner Epidermis is not evident. 

Flowering Glumes and Palets (Fig. 60). i. The Outer Epidermis 




Fig. 62. Maize. Longitudinal section 
of fruit. c pericarp; n remains of 
stigma; fs base of kernel; eg horny 
endosperm; ew floury endosperm ; sc 
and ss scutellum of embryo; e epithe- 
lium of scutellum; k plumule; «' (be- 
low) primary root; ws root sheath; 
IV (above) secondary root; st stem. 
X6. (Sachs.) 



MAIZE. 



93 



{ep) consists of cells with thin wavy walls and thin-wallecl unicellular 
and multicellular hairs. 

2. The Inner Epidermis (p) is of elongated cells. 




K 



E — 



Fig. 63. Maize. Cross section of bran coats and outer endosperm of fruit. Pericarp 
consists of ep epicarp, m niesocarp, p spongy parenchyma and sch tube cells; h spermo- 
derm; is perisperm; endosperm consists of K aleurone cells and E starch cells. X 160. 

(MOELLER.) 

Pericarp (Figs. 63 and 64). After soaking the grain for a day or two 
in water, a skin, having the same color as the grain and consisting of 
the epicarp, mesocarp, and spongy parenchyma, may be readily sepa- 




Fig. 64. IMaize. Bran coats in surface view, m mesocarp; sch tube cells; p spongy 
parenchyma; ii perisperm; ii aleurone layer. Xi6o, (Moeller.) 

rated. If yellow or white, this skin turns deep yellow with alkali; if 
red, it turns green. 

I. The Epicarp (ep) consists of porous- walled, elongated cells much 
Hke the corresponding layer of wheat, except that the walls are thicker. 
A thin cuticle covers the exposed surface. 



94 GRAIN. 

2. Mesocarp (m). Six or more layers of cells similar to those of 
the epicarp, but with thicker walls, constitute the mesocarp, or middle 
layer. In the outer layers these cells are 600 /t or more long and 20-40 p. 
broad. In the inner layers, the cells are broader, flatter, and thinner 
walled, grading into those of the next layer. 

3. Spongy Parenchyma (p). Instead of a close layer of cross cells, 
such as occur in wheat, rye and barley, or isolated vermiform cells, as in 
rice and sorghum, we find in maize a spongy parenchyma made up of 
branching and anastomosing cells with narrow, radiating arms, and 
large intercellular spaces. In most parts the transversely elongated arms 
occur in the greatest numbers, indicating the relation with the vermiform 
cross cells of rice and sorghum. 

4. Tube cells (sch). In order to study the tube cells, also the spermo- 
derm and perisperm, a whole kernel should first be soaked in water, 
stripped of the outer pericarp, as already described, and the thick inner 
skin removed. This skin should then be boiled in i| per cent alkali, 
washed in dilute acetic acid, picked apart with needles, and the frag- 
ments mouutcd in chlorzinc iodine. 

Spermoderm (is). The so-called brown membrane, although ex- 
ceedingly thin, is readily seen in cross-section. It becomes intensely 
yellow on treatment with alkalies, without swelling perceptibly. A 
single layer of delicate elongated cells and traces of a second are dis- 
closed by the method described in the preceding paragraph. 

Perisperm (h). Beneath the spermoderm is still another layer which, 
although seen in cross-section only under the most favorable circum- 
stances, is brought out clearly in surface view by the method above de- 
scribed, the swollen walls remaining colorless, the finely granular con- 
tents, however, being stained deep blue. 

Endosperm (Figs. 62, 63 and 64). i. The Aleurone Layer (K) con- 
sists, for the most part, of a single cell layer, although some of the cells 
are divided by tangential partitions. The cells are 30-40 /i in diameter, 
the double walls 6-9 /jt thick. 

2. Starch Parenchyma (E). Immediately adjoining the aleurone 
layer, the cells are small and flattened; further inward, large and iso- 
diametric. In the outer horny portion of the kernel, nearly all the starch 
grains (Fig. 65) are sharply polygonal, only a few being rounded; while 
in the inner mealy portion the reverse is true, nearly all the grains being 
rounded. A distinct hilum, often with radiating clefts, is always evident, 
at least in the larger grains. Most of the grains are 15-35 ,u. Compound 



MAIZE. 95 

forms do not occur. T. F. Hanausek has aptly described the starch 
grains of maize as standing out in bold relief, in striking contrast with 
the fiat grains of many starches. Examined with crossed Nicols, maize 
starch displays very distinct crosses. 

The Embryo (Fig. 62) contains oil and proteids, but no starch. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The numerous products of maize serve not only as foods for man 
and beast, but also frequently as adulterants. 




Fig. 65. Maize Starch. X300. (Moeller.) 

Whole Maize Products. Maize Meal. Coarsely ground maize or 
coarse corn-meal is one of the principal forms in which this cereal is 
fed to cattle, swine, and horses. 

Cracked Corn is a coarser product used as a poultry food. 

From these products lumps of horny and floury endosperm and 
fragments of the bran and germ may be picked out under the simple 
microscope. The large polygonal starch grains (Fig. 65) differ from 
those of all other economic plants but sorghum. On treatment with 
alkali, yellow or white fragments of the skin become a deep golden- 
yellow and red fragments green. The pericarp is further characterized 
by the thick porous walls of the epicarp and mesocarp Fig. (64, m), and 
the star-shaped or transversely elongated cells of the spongy parenchyma 
ip). The tube cells {scJi) are much like those of rice, oats, and 
sorghum. 

Corn and Coh Meal, often known as ''cob-meal, " consists of the kernels 
ground with the cob. The characteristics of the cob are noted below. 

Flour and Other Decorticated Products. Maize Flour is an ingre- 



96 GRAIN. 

dient of some griddle-cake flours and various other preparations. It is 
also an adulterant of wheat flour. 

Maize Meal, more or less finely ground and freed from bran, is used 
for making corn bread ("Johnny cake") and mush ("hasty pudding"). 

Hominy, a coarser product made from white maize, is a well-known 
breakfast cereal. These and some other products consist largely of 
starchy matter. 

"Corn Crisps' is one of several cooked and flaked preparations, with 
distorted starth grains. 

Corn Starch (p. 651). 

By-products. Gluten Meal and Gluten Feed are dried by-products 
from the manufacture of glucose. The former is a concentrated feed, 
consisting largely of hard, irregularly rounded, yellow lumps, the only 
marked microscopic elements being fragments of bran. ^Gluten feed 
contains more bran than does the meal. The starch grains are distorted 
in both products. 

Hominy Feed and Starch Feed, by-products containing starchy matter 
and bran, are obtained in the manufacture of hominy and starch. 

Maize Cake. The germs of maize yield, on pressing, maize oil. 
Ground germ cake is sold under the name "germ oil meal." It contains 
no starch. 

Maize Bran, although much inferior to wheat bran, is frequently 
added to the latter as an adulterant, in which case it is detected by the 
cells of the epicarp, mesocarp, and spongy parenchyma (Fig. 64). 

Maize Cobs, because of their mechanical condition and low content 
of nutrients, have Httle value as cattle food. Their legitimate use is as 
fuel and for making smoking- pipes ; the ground cobs are, however, too 
often mixed with wheat or rye bran as an adulterant. 

In bran, thus adulterated, a practiced eye, even without the aid of a 
lens, will usually find fragments of the thin glumes and palets, also of the 
thick horny glumes and woody zone. Lindsey notes that by chewing the 
bran the hard woody fragments may often be detected. The thin glumes 
and palets (Fig. 60) can be examined directly under the microscope, 
noting the color on addition of alkali ; but pieces of the thick glumes and 
the woody zone require special preparation. The characteristic epidermal 
cells (Fig. 59) of the empty glumes are obtained for study by warming with 
dilute alkali and scraping with a scalpel. For the identification of other 
tissues, sections should be cut with a razor or the elements isolated by treat- 
ment with a macerating solution. Stone cells (Fig. 57), such as make up 



MAIZE. BROOM CORN. 97 

the woody zone of the cob and the interior of the thick gkime, will be at once 
recognized as foreign to bran; and the same may be said of fibro- 
vascular bundles and the parenchyma of the pith. The compound hairs 
with thin walls, and sharp-pointed single-celled hairs with cavity five to 
six times the thickness of the walls, are readily distinguished from those 
of wheat or rye bran. Where the percentage of adulteration is large, 
chemical analysis will disclose a deficiency of nitrogen, fat, and starch 
and an excess of fiber, thus confirming the results of the microscopic ecjami- 
nation. 

Usually the thin glumes (Fig. 60) with sinuous walls and hairs, also 
the porous and non-porous epidermal cells (Fig. 59) of the thick glumes, 
suffice for identification. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674; Berg (3); Bohmer (6, 23); Hanausek, T. F. 
(16); Harz(i8); Hassall(i9); Leach (25); Mace (26); Moeller(29); Planchon et Col- 
lin (34); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et ColUn (42); VogI (43, 45); Wittmack 
(10). 

Also see Bibliography of Wheat, pp. 72-73. 
Bersch: Mais imd Maisabfalle. Landw. Vers. -Stat. 1895, 46, 85. 
Harshberger: Maize, a Botanical and Economic Study. Contrb. Bot. Lab. Univ. 

Pennsylvania I, 1893, 75. 
LiNz: Beitrage zur Physiologie der Keimung von Zea Mais L. Dissert. Marburg. 1896. 
P.4MMEL: Comparative Anatomy of the Corn Caryopsis. Iowa Acad. Sci. 1897, 5, i. 
White: Note on the Use of Maize as an Adulterant. Analyst, 1895, 20, 30. 
Winton: Die Anatomic des Maiskolbens mit besonderer Rucksicht auf den Nachweis 

von Kolbenmehl als Verfalschungsmittel der Weizen- und Roggenklcis. Oesterr. 

Chem.-Ztg. 1900, 3, N. F., 345. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1900, 186. 

BROOM CORN. 

A number of plants formerly regarded as separate species of the 
genus Sorghum [S. saccharatum Pers., S. vulgare Pers., S. Caffrorum 
Beauv., S. nigrum Rocm. et Schult., S. cernuum Willd.) are now classed 
as varieties of a single species (Andropogon Sorghum Brot.), the extraor- 
dinary differences in their inflorescence and fruit being the result of 
hybridization and selection extending through centuries. These dif- 
ferences are especially marked, because some of the varieties have been 
developed for grain, others for brush, and still others for sugar; whereas 
in the case of other cereals the production of grain has been chiefly con- 
sidered. 



98 GRAIN. 

Broom corn {Andropogon Sorghum var. technicus Koern.), one of 
the most important varieties, is grown in large quantities in Illinois, 
Kansas, Nebraska, and some other states of the United States, and to 
a much lesser extent in Spain, Italy, and other parts of Europe. Al- 
though the grain is not fully ripe when the brush is in its best condition, 
still it is utilized to some extent as food for cattle and poultry, and some- 
times is mixed with wheat bran as an adulterant. 

A fertile spikelet (Fig. 66) and one or two staminate or rudimentary 
spikelets (r) are borne at each joint of the panicle. The fertile spike- 




FiG. 66, Broom Corn {Andropogon Sorgliiim var. technicus). Fruit with chaff, r two 
staminate spikelets; ^i lower empty glume; g^ upper empty glume; ^3 glume of rudi- 
mentary flower; gf flowering glume with awn; p palet; c caryopsis or fruit. X4. 

(WiNTON.) 

let consists of two shining, thick, empty glumes (^i and ^2) and three 
membranous, hairy envelopes, constituting the glume {gj) and small 
palet {p) of the perfect flower, and the glume (^3) of a rudimentary flower. 
A geniculate upwardly barbed awn, 5-7 mm. long, is borne on the glume 
of the perfect flower; but this awn, being readily detached by thresh- 
ing, is seldom found in the grain on the market. The grain or cary- 
opsis is about 5 mm. long and from 2-3 mm. wide, tapering to a 
blunt point at both ends. It varies in color from yellow-brown to 
red-brown. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Both Empty Glumes (Fig. 66, ^1 and ^2) are from 4 to 6 mm. long, 
equalhng and closely enveloping the fruit. They vary in color from 
yeUow-brown to red-brown. The soft hairs, which nearly cover the outer 
surface, are loosely attached and most of them are removed during the 
threshing and cleaning of the seed, leaving the glumes smooth and 
shining. 



BROOM CORN. 



99 



I. The Outer Epidermis (Figs. 67 and 68, aep) consists of thick- 
walled sclerenchyma cells several times as long as broad, with wavy con- 




FiG. 67. Fig. 68. 

Fig. 67. Broom Corn. Transverse section of empty glume and outer layers of fruit. Sp 
empty glume consists of aep outer epidermis, / fiber layer, p spongy parenchyma with 
g bundle, and iep inner epidermis with sto stoma; Fs pericarp consists of ep epicarp with 
c cuticle, hy hypoderm, mes starchy mesocarp, q cross cells and sch tube cells; A'' peri- 
sperm with 5 swollen inner walls; E endosperm, consists of al aleurone layer and the 
starch cells with st starch grains and a proteid network. Xi6o. (Winton.) 

Fig. 68. Broom Corn, aep outer epidermis and / fiber of an empty glume in surface view. 
X 300. (Winton.) 

tour, interspersed here and there with isodiametric hair-scars, each ac- 
companied by a crescent-shaped cell with granular contents. The hairs, 
which are almost invariably detached in preparing the mount, if not in 
cleaning the seed, are often i.o mm. long and 12 // broad in the middle, 
but tapering towards both ends. Invariably the lumen is much broader 
than the walls. 

2. The Hypoderm Fibers (Figs. 67 and 68, /), of wliich there are 
several layers, have thick walls and narrow cavities. 

3. Spongy Parenchyma (Figs. 67 and 69, p). As seen in surface view, 
the cells of this layer are more or less rectangular with circular inter- 
cellular spaces, and resemble those of rice and barley glumes. 

4. Inner Epidermis (Figs. 67 and 69, iep). In cross-section this layer 
is not readily studied, since the radial walls are usually collapsed; but 
in surface preparations, the large elongated cells, often 150 /< long and 
50 /« wide, interspersed with stomata and hairs, are clearly displayed. 



GRAIN. 



Flowering Glumes and Pabt. i. Outer Epidermis (Fig. 70, aep). 
In general form the cells are similar to those of the outer epidermis of 
the empty glumes, but are narrower and much thinner walled. The 
marginal hairs (//) arc long (often 500 ,«), single-celled, and pointed; 




Fig. 69. Broom Corn. Inner layers of 
empty glume in surface view showing p 
spongy parenchyma and iep inner epi- 
dermis with sto stoma and h hair. 

X 300. (WiNTON.) 




FiGi. 70. Broom Corn. Glume 
of rudimentary flower (Fig. 
66, g^ in surface view, aep 
outer ep^idermis with h one- 
celled hair and /^' two- 
celled hair; iep inner epi- 
dermis. X 300. (WiNTON.) 



but on the surface, shorter hairs (/z^), with two or three joints and blunt 
ends, also occur. Both of these forms have exceedingly thin walls. 

2. The Inner Epidermis (iep) is distinguished from the outer by the 
straight walls, and almost entire absence of hairs. 

Pericarp, i. Epicarp (Figs. 67 and 71, ep). The cells are longi- 
tudinally extended and have thick, wavy side walls, with more or less 
distinct pores. Hassack has noted that the cuticle (c) is of uneven thick- 
ness, due to minute granules or crystals, which may be seen cither in 
section or surface view. 

2. The Hypoderm (hy) consists of from one to three layers of cells, 
with walls somewhat thinner than those of the epidermis. 



BROOM CORN. 



loi 



3. Starchy Mesocarp (mes). Several layers of thin-walled parenchyma 
cells, filled usually with small round or rounded polygonal starch grains, 
seldom over 6 /i in diameter, make up this coat. The starch appears 
during the early stages of growth and persists until the fruit nearly or 
quite reaches full maturity. As the caryopsis, even when nearly ma- 
ture, is intensely green owing to chlorophyl grains in the outermost layers 
of the mesocarp, it may be inferred that this starch is a direct product 
of assimilation in the pericarp. The presence or absence of a starchy 
mesocarp in the grain at the time of harvest is not a definite varietal pecu- 



hy mes ^ ^'^^ 




Fig. 71. Broom Corn. Bran layers in suiface view, ep epicarp; liy hypoderm; mes 
starchy mesocarp; g cross cells; 5c/j tube cells; A^ perisperm; c/ aleurone cells. X i6o. 

(WiNTON.) 



liarity, but is dependent on the ripeness of the fruit or other conditions. 
Some kernels of the same variety may possess it, while others show only 
empty, obhterated cells. Whether or not the starch is present in a given 
seed may often be determined by careful scraping and observation with 
the naked eye. 

4. Cross Cells (q). These cells are usually long and narrow, being 
distinguished from the tube cells only by their transverse arrangement. 
Near the extremities of the seed they are, however, shorter and of more 
irregular shape. 

5. Tube Cells (sch). The cells of this layer lie at right angles to the 
cross cells. They are about 5 /i wide and often reach a length of 200 fi. 

Perisperm (iV). This layer is frequently 50 /t thick. The outer radial 
walls are thin, but the inner wall (s) is greatly swollen. In surface view 
the large cells are conspicuous, not only because of their size, but because 
of their yellow or brown color. 



102 GRAIN. 

Endosperm, i. Aleurone Layer (al). The individual cells of this 
layer are characterized by their great variation in size and form. 

2. Starch Parenchyma (st). In the outer layers the starch grains, 
if present, arc much smaller than in the interior of the seed, where they 
sometimes reach a diameter of 30 fi. They are usually sharply polygonal, 
with a distinct hilum and radiating fissures. The starch is surrounded 
by small protein granules, forming a network (a) which is especially 
evident after removing the starch by reagents. In some specimens, 
one or more of the outer cell layers are filled with these protein granules 
to the complete exclusion of the starch. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The starch grains of broom corn and other sorghum fruits are practi- 
cally the same, both in form and size, as those of maize, although radically 
different from those of all other cereals. Meyer observed that the grains 
of some varieties of sorghum take on a reddish color, not a blue, with 
iodine solution, but Mitlacher found that this reaction takes place only 
after first soaking the grain in water. As a means of distinguishing 
sorghum starch from maize starch, this test is of little value, and it is neces- 
sary to depend on the differences in structure of other histological elements 
The epidermis (Fig. 68) of the glumes and the perisperm (Fig. 71, N) 
of both broom corn and sugar sorghum are radically unlike any tissues 
found in maize. Especially characteristic are the cells of the perisperm, 
which may be readily found without treatment with reagents, whereas in 
other cereals they can seldom be seen except under the most favorable 
conditions- 
After treatment with alkali, the epidermis (Fig, 68, aep) of the empty 
glumes may be readily distinguished from the corresponding tissues of 
maize by the longer cells, their zigzag contour and the crescent-shaped 
cells which almost invariably accompany the hair-scars. The thin glumes 
(Fig. 70) resemble those of maize (Fig. 60), but the epidermal cells are 
longer, narrower and less irregular in form. 

The tube cells of the two cereals are much the same, and the cross 
cells of sorghum are often not distinguishable from the spongy parenchyma 
cells of maize. Of the other tissues, the epicarp is not always character- 
istic, and the starchy mesocarp is difficult to find in the ground product. 
The elongated cells of the outer epidermis of the thick glumes in 
sorghum and barley arc much alike, but the short conical hairs, often 



BROOM CORN. SUGAR SORGHUM. 103 

unaccompanied by crescent-shaped cells, are characteristic of barley. 
Sorghum and oat glumes are not so readily distinguished by the epidermal 
tissues ; but in sorghum the cells of the spongy parenchyma are, like those 
of barley, irregularly rectangular with round intercellular spaces, whereas 
in oats they are star-shaped. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See general Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hassall (19). 
Brown: On Another New Pepper Adulterant. Analyst. 1887, 12, 89. 
Harz: Landw. Samenkunde. Berlin, 1885, 2, 1249. 
Hassack: Anatomie der Sorghum-Friichte. Mitth. aus dem Labor, f. Waarenk. an 

der Wiener Handels-Akad. 1887, 113. 
Mitlacher: Ueber einige exotische Gramineenfriichte, die zur menschlichen Nahrung 

dienen. Ztschr. allg. osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1901, 813, 831, 856, 875, 899 u. 928. 
Winton: Anatomie der Kultur-Varietaten der Hirse. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm. 

1903, 6, 337. Conn. Agr. Expt. Sta. Rep. 1902, 326. 

SUGAR SORGHUM. 

Sugar sorghum (Andropogan Sorghum var. saccharatus Koern.) has 
been cultivated for many years in China and Africa and for the past half 
century in America. At one time it gave promise of being the chief sugar 
plant of the United States, but has since largely given place to the sugar 
beet. It is cut for sugar before the seeds reach maturity, but the latter 
still have some value as food for stock. When grown to maturity the seed 
are said to be equal or superior to durrha. 

Early Amber, Early Orange and other important varieties resemble 
closely the broom corns in habit of growth, but the panicles are shorter 
and less spreading. The two black, shining, empty glumes are of about 
the same length as those of broom corn, but are somewhat broader and, 
since they do not so closely envelop the caryopsis, are sometimes, though 
not usually, removed in threshing. 

Numerous loosely attached hairs cover the surface of these empty 
glumes, but they, as well as the awned flowering glumes, drop off in the 
preparation of the grain for the market. 

Under the microscope the two varieties named cannot be distinguished 
from the broom corns except by the material in the epidermal cells of the 
empty glumes, to which they owe their black color. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See Broom Corn, p. 103. 



I04 GRAIN. 

KAFFIR CORN. 

Kaffir corn (Andropogon Sorghum (L.) Brot.) is the chief bread cereal 
and cattle food of the natives in parts of South Africa, and is an impor- 
tant product in parts of America. The fruit is borne in a dense head 
which does not bend over at maturity. 

The empty glumes are somewhat shorter than the fruit and the flower- 
ing glume is not awned. The caryopsis is white or red according to the 
variety, nearly globular, about 4 mm. in diameter and separates from 
the glumes in threshing. 

In microscopic structure Kaffir corn, aside from the absence of chaff, 
differs from the broom corns and sugar sorghums chiefly in that the peri- 
sperm is not evident either in cross-section or in surface preparation, and 
in that the hypoderm is more strongly developed, often consisting of three 
layers of thick- walled cells. 

White milo maize is but a subvariety. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See Broom Corn, p. 103. 

DURRHA. 

Brown durrha, white durrha or Jerusalem corn, and yellow milo 
maize are forms of Andropogon Sorghum var. durra (Forskal) Hackel, 
differing from each other chiefly in the color of the caryopsis. They are 
grown to some extent in America for the grain, which is used as food for 
both cattle and poultry. The plants reach the height of 2 to 3 meters, 
but as the dense heads approach maturity, the racliis below them bends 
over, forming a goose-neck. 

Both of the empty glumes are obtuse, densely hairy, and about half 
the length of the large, flattened, more or less lenticular caryopsis, which 
is 5 to 6 mm. long and of about the same breadth. The flowering glume 
of white durrha is awned, but that of red durrha and yellow milo maize 
is awnless. As found in the market, the grain is usually free from all 
envelopes. 

Although to the naked eye the fruits of the three varieties are much 
alike except in color, under the microscope they show one marked differ- 
ence. In brown durrha the perisperm or nucellar layer is always strongly 
developed, whereas in the white and yellow varieties this layer is not evident. 



DURRHA. RICE. 



105 



The other parts of the fruit are much the same as described under 
broom corn, but the outer layers of the endosperm normally contain 
only aleurone grains. 



See Broom Com, p. 103. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 



RICE. 



Rice {Oryza saliva L.), although not strictly a bread grain, furnishes 
daily food for more human beings than any 
other cereal. It is the chief food product in 
China, where it has been cultivated for nearly 
5000 years, also in Japan, India, and other 
Oriental countries. Its culture has extended 
from the East to all the warmer regions of the 
globe. 

The inflorescence is in panicles (Fig. 72, ^) 
made up of single- flowered spikelets {B), each 
with two minute empty glumes, a thick, awned, 
conspicuously five-ribbed flowering glume, and 
an equally thick, three-ribbed palet, both the 
latter being strongly compressed and keeled. The 
flowering glume and palet are dull and lusterless, 
harsh and rasping to the touch, owing to numer- 
ous longitudinal striations with transverse mark- 
ings, which, together with coarse hairs, are readily 
seen under a lens. The awn is seldom found 
on the threshed grain. The flattened fruit or 
caryopsis {K) is oblong, about 8 mm. long with 
blunt base and apex. The relief of the glumes 
is impressed on the surface, forming longitudinal 
grooves and ridges. The germ is situated on the ^^^/ 72- Rice (Oryza satiya). 

A panicle; B single fruit 




dorsal edge at the base. 



with chaff ; iT naked fruit; 
F flower. (Nees.) 



HISTOLOGY. 



Jlowering Glume and Palet. Owing to the silica in the epidermis, 
rice glumes cannot be readily sectioned until after they have been soaked 



io6 



GRAIN. 



for some time in alkali. Maceration in Schulze's fluid serves to isolate 
the elements. 

I. The Outer Epidermis (Figs. 73 and 74, ep^) consists of parallel 
longitudinal rows of large, thick-walled cells, square in general outline, 
with highly characteristic, very deeply sinuous side walls. Focusing on 
the outer walls, these side walls are seen to be compoundly sinuous. 

Stiff dagger-shaped hairs {t^) up to 500 [j. long (usually 150-250 /i) 
and 40 /x in diameter at the base are scattered over the surface, being 




Fig. 73. Rice. Cross section of palet and outer portion of fruit. P palet consists of 
ep^ outer epidermis with hair, / hypoderm fibers, p spongy parenchyma with }v bundle, 
and ep^ inner epidermis with sto stoma; F pericarp consists of epi epicarp, mes mesocarp, 
tr cross cells, and tu tube cells; 5 spermoderm; A^ perisperm; E endosperm consists 
of aZ aleurone cells, also starch cells. Xi6o. (Winton.) 



especially abundant and also longest on the ribs and near the apex. 
The walls are 5-9 n thick. 

2. The Hypoderm (/) consists of a double or triple layer of longi- 
tudinally-extended sclerenchyma fibers. In the outer layers, the fibers 
are strongly thickened and often have comb-like outgrowths, which join 
them one with another or with the epidermis. The inner fibers are thinner 
walled and have outgrowths only on the outer sides. 

3. Spongy Parenchyma (p). Two, sometimes more, layers of spongy 
parenchyma, through which run the bundles, form the mesophyl. The 
cells are rectangular, with thin wavy walls. Intercellular spaces occur, 
not only at the angles, but also between the surfaces of the walls. 



RICE. 



107 



4. Inner Epidermis (ep^). In cross-section, this layer of collapsed 
cells appears as a hyaline, striated membrane. Surface preparations 




Fig. 74. Rice. Layers of palet in surface view, ep'' outer epidermis with x sinuous cells, 
f hair, and y hair scar; / hypoderm fibers; p spongy parenchyma; ep"^ inner epidermis 
with 5^0 stoma and i^ hair. X 160. (WiNTON.) 



show that the cells over the bundles are elongated, but in other parts are 
more or less cubical. The cell-walls are thin and marked with delicate 
striations. Between these cells occur one- to three-celled (usually two- 
celled) very thin-walled hairs, also stomata, consisting of two peculiar 
guard cells and two somewhat larger companion cells with protoplasmic 
contents. 

Pericarp (Fig. 73, F; Fig. 75). Sections are cut after removing the 
hulls and soaking for some hours in water. Fragments for surface ex- 
amination are obtained by boiling the grain for a few moments in i| 
per cent alkah, plunging in dilute acetic acid, and removing the outer skin, 
which readily separates after this treatment. 

1. Epicarp {epi). The outer layer of the fruit is the easiest found 
and the most characteristic. Unhke the epicarp of all the other cereals, 
the cells are transversely elongated, with curious, wavy, end walls. They 
are 120-500 ix long and 30-100 /x wide, and are arranged side by side 
in rows. 

2. Mesocarp (mes). Several layers of more or less compressed cells, 
indistinctly seen in transverse section, underhe the epicarp. In the first 
layer or two these cells are much like the cross cells of barley, but in the 



Io8 GRAW. 

inner layers they are more elongated, passing into the vermiform ceUs 
of the next layer. 

3. Cross Cells (tr). As all the cells between the epicarp and tube 
cells are transversely elongated, increasing in length but decreasing in 
breadth from without inward, a sharp classification into two layers is 
obviously impossible. The cells of the inner layer, here designated as 



Fig. 75. Rice. Bran coats in surface view, epi epicarp; mes mesocarp; Ir cross cells; 
tu tube cells; 5 spermoderm; N perisperm. X300. (Winton.) 

cross cells, are strikingly distinct from the cross cells of wheat, rye, barley, 
and oats, but resemble closely those of maize, sorghum, and millet. They 
range in length up to 500 /«, but are only 4-6 pt broad. As a rule they 
are nearly straight, but in parts they are bent and even branching. They 
occur either united in a close layer or detached. 

Tube Cells (tu). The detached vermiform cells resemble strikingly 
those of the last layer, but are narrower, being but 3-5 pt broad. They 
are the only cells of the pericarp, spermoderm, or perisperm that are not 
transversely elongated. 

Spermoderm (Figs 73 and 75, S). Cross-sections, previous to treat- 
ment with reagents, show only an indistinct structureless line between the 
tube cells and aleurone layer; but after heating with potash, washing in 
dilute acetic acid, and staining with chlorzinc iodine, the cuticle of the 
spermodemi is evident as a thin, yellow line, and the perisperm as a dark 
blue layer. After the removal of the tnin skin forming the pericarp, as 



RICE. 109 

already described, a second, thicker skin, consisting chiefly of spermoderm, 
perisperm, and aleurone cells may be separated by scraping. The spermo- 
derm is recognized by the thin cell-walls and the bright yellow color 
due to the thick cuticle. The more or less transversely or diagonally 
elongated cells resemble those of wheat and other cereals, but form only 
one layer. 

Perisperm (Figs. 73 and 75, N). As has been noted in the preceding 
paragraph, remains of the nucellus may be seen in section after treatment 
with potash and staining with chlorzinc iodine. In carefully prepared 
mounts the reticulated radial walls are evident. These cells are easily 
seen in surface view in mounts prepared as above described, and are 
distinguished from the cells of the spermoderm by the beaded appearance 
of the radial walls, due to reticulations, and their dark blue color. The 
cells are transversely elongated and are side by side in rows. 

Endosperm (Fig. 73, E). i. The Aleurone Cells (al) are rounded 
polygonal, 25-40 u in diameter, with uncommonly thin walls. 

2. Starch Parenchyma. The thin- walled cells contain starch grains 
(Fig. 76) 2-10 /( in diameter often united into oval aggregates containing 




Fig. 76. Rice Starch. X300. (Moeller.) 

from two to upward of a hundred grains. Grains from the center of a 
large aggregate have only flat facets, but those from the outer portion are 
curved on the exposed surfaces. Perfectly round grains arc rare. In com- 
mercial rice-starch one seldom finds aggregates, since they are usually 
broken up in the process of manufacture. The grains shows distinct 
crosses with crossed Nicols, the hilum being centrally located. 



RICE. 



DIAGNOSIS. 



Whole Rice. Rice is largely used as a human food in the form of the 
whole grain divested of the chaff, pericarp, spermoderm, the larger part 
of the germ, and some of the aleurone layer. 

Mill Products. Rice Flour and various other mill products are used 
to a limited extent in preparing infant and invalid foods, griddle cakes, 
puddings, etc. 

In all the products above named, the microscopic elements are starch 
grains (Fig. 76) , occurring as individuals or in aggregates, aleurone cells, 
and occasional fragments of other parts of the grain. 

Flaked Rice is a breakfast preparation, cooked ready for use. The 
starch grains are much distorted. 

Rice-starch (see p. 652). 

Rice By-products. Two by-products are obtained in preparing com- 
mercial rice: first, hulls or, more correctly, glumes and palets, and second, 
bran or middhngs, consisting of the pericarp, spermoderm, germ, and 
fragments of the aleurone layer. 

Rice Hulls are useful as packing for eggs, bottles, etc. Owing to their 
harshness, as well as the lack of food elements, they are not fit for cattle 
foods. Ground rice hulls are, however, used for adulterating not only 
fodders, but cocoa, pepper, and other human foods. Fragments of 
sufficient size may be identified under a lens by the striations. If, while 
held by a needle, they are scraped with a scalpel, their rough, silicious 
nature is evident. Under the microscope, after treatment with alkali or 
macerating, the nearly square epidermal cells (Fig. 74, ep^) with thick 
deeply zigzag walls and the broad dagger-shaped hairs (/^j are highly 
characteristic. 

Rice Bran is a valuable fodder and is a common adulterant of spices 
and other foods. It is composed not only of the elements of the pericarp, 
spermoderm, and germ, but also of aleurone cells and starch parenchyma, 
and often is contaminated with hulls. 

The most characteristic elements of the fruit are the epicarp cells 
(Fig. 75, epi) with zigzag end walls, but cross cells and tube cells also aid 
in identification. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (6, 23); Hanausek, T. F. (16, 17); 
Harz(i8); Hassall (19); Leach (25); Mace (26); Moeller(29); Planchonet Collin (34); 



OATS. 



Ill 



Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (43, 45); Wittmack 
(10). 
Also see Bibliography of Wheat, pp. 72 and 73. 
Bxjrchard: Reis und Reisabfalle. Landw. Vers. -Stat. 1896, 48, m. 
V. Hohnel: Die anatomischen Verhaltnisse der Reisspelze. Haberland's Wissensch.- 

prakt. Unters. auf dem Gebiete des Pflanzenbaues. I, 149. 
Street: Rice Hulls. New Jersey Agrl. Expt. Sta. Bull. 160, 1902. 

OATS. 

Oats {Avena sativa L.) are not only a valuable food for horses and 
other cattle, but also for the human family. For generations this cereal 
has been one of the chief articles of diet in Norway, Scotland, and Ireland, 
and within the last generation oat preparations have come into extensive 
use in America. 

The numerous varieties are grouped under two races: panicled oats, 
with loose inflorescence, and banner oats {A. orientalis Schreb.), with 
one-sided, contracted panicles. Belonging to both races, are naked and 
chaffy, awned and awnless varieties. Wild oats {A. fatua L.), with 




Fig. 77. Oats {Avena sativa). Cross section of flowering glume and fruit. 5/) flowering, 
glume consists of ep outer epidermis, / hypoderm fibers, p spongy parenchyma, and 
i inner epidermis; Fs pericarp consists of fe epicarp and qu cross cells; K aleurone 
cells of the endosperm. X160. (Moeller.) 

geniculate awns, a common weed in grain fields, is believed by many 
botanists to have been the parent of the principal varieties in cultivation. 
The two or more flowered spikelets are subtended by two large, mem- 
braneous, empty glumes, which are left on the straw after threshing. 
In the common varieties, each grain is closely enveloped by the smooth, 
rounded, silicified, five or more veined, but not ribbed flowering glume, 
and the two-nerved, thin, palet. The flowering glume has narrow, thin, 



GRAIN. 



edges; the palet, broad, membraneous wings which clasp the fruit. The 

I 




Fig. 78. Oats. Outer epidermis from the margin of the flowering glume, h hairs; 
/ crescent-shaped cells. X300. (Moeller.) 

a^Ti of the flowering glume, when present, is broken off in cleaning the 

/ 




Fig. 79. Oats. Elements of chatT (flowering glumes and palets) isolated by maceration. 
ep elongated cells, / crescent-shaped cells and K silica cell, all of the outer epidermis; 
/; hair; / hypodcrm fibers. X160. (Moeller.) 

grain. Freed of the chaff, the grain is spindle-shaped, with a silky-hairy 



OATS. 



"3 



shallow groove on the ventral side. The germ is about one-third the length 
of the fruit. 

HISTOLOGY. 
Flowering Glume, i. The Outer Epidermis (Fig. 77, ep) consists 
of elongated cells with thick, wavy walls, twin cells (one of which is usually 
crescent-shaped), and circular cells. On the body of the glume the cell- 
walls are often thicker than the cavity (Fig. 79, ep) while on the edges 
(Fig. 78) they are much thinner. Hairs occur on the edges, being most 





Fig. 80. Oats. Cells and hairs from 
membranous margin of flowering 

glume. X160. (MOELLER.) 



Fig. 81. Oats. Inner layers of chaff (flowering 
glume or palet), in surface view. p spongy 
parenchyma; i inner epidermis with st stomata. 
X300. (MoELLER.) 



numerous near the apex. They are mostly rigid, thick-walled, dagger- 
shaped, broad at base (15-20 /«) and seldom exceed 60 [x in length. Some 
at the very edge are thin- walled, with a slight curve toward the end, giving 
them a peculiar, hooked appearance (Fig. 80). 

2. Hypoderm Fibers (Figs. 77 and 79, /), for the most part in 4-10 
layers, form a dense, hard coat. The individuals often exceed i mm. in 
length, and have thick, sparingly porous walls. As may be seen after 
maceration, the walls adjoining the epidermis are often toothed. 

3. The Spongy Parenchyma (Figs. 77 and 81, p) is distinguished from 
the corresponding layer of other cereals by the star-shaped form of the cells. 



114 



GRAIN. 



4. The Inner Epidermis (i) consists of thin-walled cells and stomata. 

The Palet. The middle portion of the palet has practically the same 
structure as the flowering glume, except that the hypoderm layer is thinner; 
but the membraneous wings have an outer epidermis made up of thin-walled 
cells, and a rudimentary hypoderm or else no hypoderm whatever. Near 
the keels and parallel to them are rows of stomata, and on the keels are 
numerous stiff, thick- walled, pointed hairs about 15 /« in diameter at 
the base and upward of 100 p. long. As the palet often breaks or bends 
on the keels these hairs form a highly characteristic saw-tooth edge. 




Fig. 82, Oats. Bran coats in surface view. Je epicarp with long hairs; Jm mesocarp; 
qu cross cells; K aleurone cells. X i6o. (Moeller,) 

Pericarp (Figs. 77 and 82). In cross-section the pericarp and spermo- 
derm do not show details of structure. The following characters may 
be observed in surface view: 

I. Epicarp. The cells on the body of the grain are longitudinally 
elongated, with thin, porous side walls, but at the apex and base are nearly 



OATS. 115 

isodiamctric. The long hairs which clothe the apex often exceed 200 // in 
length. They arc usually broadest in the middle (about 20 /i), tapering 
toward both ends. The base is sometimes so narrow as to be hardly 
distinguishable from the apex. 

2. The Mesocarp or Middle Coat Qm) is ill-defined. 

3. Cross Cells (qu). The thin- walled, inconspicuous cells are arranged 
side by side in rows. 

The Spermoderm and Perisperm are not evident in the ripe grain. 

Endosperm (Figs. 76 and 82). i. The Aleurone Layer (K) is commonly 
one cell-layer thick. The cells are 20-60 /«, and have thinner walls (double 
walls 5 /( or less) than in wheat, rye and barley. 

2. Starch Parenchyma. The large, thin- walled cells contain starch 
grains (Fig. 83) which for the most part are polygonal, and are collected 




Fig. 83. Oat Starch. X300. (Moeller.) 

in elHpsoidal or rounded aggregates (up to 60 /i) of from two to many grains. 
Among the simple grains are characteristic spindle-shaped forms. The 
individual grains seldom exceed 10 /< in diameter, and are commonly much 
less. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Oats are commonly fed to horses and other farm animals without 
removing the chaff, and often without grinding. Ground oats are fre- 
quently mixed with other cereal products, particularly those containing 
less fibrous matter. Provender, a mixture of ground oats and maize, 
is one of the commonest horse feeds in the United States. 

The elements of chief importance in diagnosis are : first, the smooth, 
rounded (not ribbed as in barley) flowering glume, with an epidermis 
(Fig. 79, ep) of thick, wavy-walled, elongated cells, circular cells and 
twin cells, and with star-shaped (not rectangular as in other cereals) 



1 1 6 GRAIN. 

spongy parenchyma cells (Fig. 8i, p); second, the palet of more delicate 
structure, having keels barbed with coarse hairs, forming saw-toothed 
edges; third, the epicarp with long, slender hairs (Fig. 82), often nar- 
rowed at the base; fourth, the rounded aggregates of polygonal starch 
grains and spindle-shaped forms (Fig. 83). 

Oatmeal, Rolled Oats, and similar "breakfast cereals," contain all 
the above elements except those of the chaff, though in some of these 
products the starch grains have been distorted by cooking. 

Oat By-products, consisting chiefly of chaff, are obtained in the manu- 
facture of breakfast cereals and are used in mixed cattle foods. They 
are inferior in nutritive value, being rich in fiber but poor in protein, fat 
and starch. The glumes and palets are distinguished from the corre- 
sponding parts of barley by the characters above named. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Bohmer (6, 23); Hanausek, T. F. 
(16); Harz (18); Hassall (19); Leach (25); Mace (26); Moeller (29); Planchon et 
Collin (34); Schimper (37); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogi 
(43. 45); Wittmack (10). 

Also see Bibliography of Wheat, pp. 72 and 73. 
Emmerling: Ueber eine einfache Unterscheidungsweise von Gersten- und Haferspelzen. 

Landw. Vers. -Stat. 1898, 50, i. 
White: Note on the Use of Maize as an Adulterant of Oatmeal. Analyst. 1895, 20, 30. 

COMMON MILLET. 

Millet (Panicum miliaceum L.), an ancient cereal, is still extensively 
cultivated for grain in India, China, and Japan, and to some extent in 
Russia and other parts of Europe. In America it is grown only for green 
fodder and hay. 

The nearly globular fruit is tightly clasped by the flowering glume 
and palet, the whole forming an oval grain 3 mm. long and 2 mm. broad. 
Both envelopes are of a uniform buff or straw color and are smooth and 
lustrous. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Flowering Glumes and Palet. The Outer Epidermal cells on the palet 
and the central part of the glume are isodiametric or somewhat elongated, 
with compoundly sinuous side and end walls ; on the edges of the glume 
they are more elongated, with straight end walls. Both forms have 
smooth outer walls and arc without colored contents. 



COMMON MILLET. Il7 

The Hypoderm Fibers, rectangular parenchyma cells without inter- 
cellular spaces, and the inner epidermis also of rectangular cells, are 
the same as in the glumes and palet of Setaria. 

The Caryopsis agrees in structure with that of Setaria viridis and S. 
Italica, except that the aleurone cells are 25-50 it in diameter, whereas 
in Setaria they seldom exceed 20 [x. Vogl has shown that on treatment 




Fig. 84. Common Millet {Panicum mUiaceiim). Starch cells of endosperm showing (at 
the left) beaded network remaining after treatment with alkali. (VOGL.) 

with alkaH the starch grains dissolve, leaving a beaded network corre- 
sponding to the form of the grains (Fig. 84). 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The chief products of millet are grits and the chaff and other by- 
products obtained in the preparation of grits. 

Millet grits contains starchy matter, large aleurone ccIIg, and frag- 
ments of other bran elements. 

In chaffy by-products, the glumes and palets are distinguished from 
those of chaffy wheats, barley, oats, rice, maize, darnel, and chess by 
the absence of hairs, and of twin cells, and also by the rectangular paren- 
chyma cells without intercellular spaces; from those of German millet 
by the absence of wrinkles on the outer epidermis, and from those of 
green foxtail by the absence of both wrinkles and patches of brown tis- 
sues. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
Hanausek, T. F.: Ueber die Matta. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1887, 1, 24. 
Netolitzky: Mikroskopische Untersuchung ganzlich verkohlter vorgeschichtlicher 

Nahrungsmittel aus Tirol. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm. 1900, 3, 401. 
Vogl: Die wichtigsten vegetabilischen Nahrungs- und GenussmitteL Berlin u, Wien, 

1S99, 135- 



Il8 GRAIN. 



GERMAN MILLET. 

There is good evidence that German millet or Hungarian grass {Seta- 
ria Italica Beauv., S. panis Jessen) was the chief cereal of the lake 
dwellers and other prehistoric races. In China as early as 2700 B.C. 
it ranked with rice as one of the staple crops, and is still an important 
cereal in the East. In other parts of the world it is grown largely for 
hay or for poultry food. Since German millet is regarded as but a form 
of green foxtail {Setaria viridis) developed by cultivation, it is not sur- 
prising that the fruits of the two agree closely both in macroscopic and 
microscopic structure. 

The glumes and palets are of a yellow or buff color, which aids in dis- 
tinguishing them from the spotted or dark envelopes of green foxtail. 
In other respects the two grains are not distinguishable. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Hanausek, T. F.: Ueber die Matta. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1887, 1, 24. 
Vogl: Die wichtigsten vegetabilischen Nahrungs- u. Genussmittel. Beriin u. Wien, 
■ 1899, 135- 

GREEN FOXTAIL. 

Green foxtail {Setaria viridis Beauv., Chaetochloa viridis (L.) Scribn.) 
is a troublesome weed in both continents, particularly in the grain fields 
of the northwestern states of the United States. The seed has been 
found in American screenings in quantities varying up to 11. 6 per cent. 

The inflorescence is in dense, bristly spikes, or rather spiked panicles, 
4-10 cm. long. Each spikelet consists of two empty glumes and two 
floAvers, one perfect with coriaceous transversely wrinkled glume and 
palct, the other staminate with membraneous envelopes (Fig. 85). At 
the base of the spikelet are from two to four upwardly barbed bristles 
varying in length up to 8 mm. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Empty Glumes and Glume of Sterile Flower (Fig. 85, g^, g^ and 
^/i). The lower empty glume is three-veined and less than i mm. long; 
the upper empty glume and the glume of the staminate flower are five- 
veined and 2 mm. long. In microscopic structure the three are practi- 
cally identical. 



GREEN FOXTAIL. 



119 



I. Outer Epidermis (Fig. 86). Characteristic of this layer are the 
elongated cells with sinuous side walls and longitudinal rows of pits so 
arranged that one pit occurs in each concave bend of the wall. On 
the middle portion of the mature glume each of these pits is so large 
that it fills completely the bend of the wall and in addition has a thickened 
border, half of which coincides with the cell-wall, thus giving the tissue 
a lace-like appearance. This structure is optically delusive, the pit 






\^ 



II 



Fig. 86. Green Foxtail. Outer 
epidermis of the glume of the 
staminate flower. 7 at the edge; 
77 in the middle. X300. (Win- 
ton.) 



Fig 85. Green Foxtail {Setirii viridis). I 
spikelet with ripe fruit: g' lower empty 
glume; g^ upper empty glume; gf^ glume 
and p^ palet of staminate flower; gl'^ glume 
and p^ palet of fertile flower; c fruit or 
caryopsis; b bristles. 77 and 777 caryopsis 
enclosed by flowering glume and palet. 

X 8. (WiNTON.) 

borders often appearing to be the cell-walls, but is resolved by careful 
focusing and comparison with the tissue in earher stages of growth. 

In addition to these elongated cells, pairs of short cells, one isodia- 
metric, probably a hair-scar,, the other more or less crescent-shaped, 
occur here and there, and less frequently stomata and thin-walled one- 
to three-jointed hairs. 

2. Mesophyl. Only about the nerves and the basal portions of the 
glumes is this coat evident. It has no diagnostic importance. 

3. The Inner Epidermis is composed of elongated cells with straight 

walls. 

Palet of Staminate Flower (Fig. 85, p^). Within the glume of the 
staminate flower is the palet, a hyahne scale only i mm. or less long with 



120 GRyilN. 

a notch at the end. In general structure, it is much the same as the other 
thin envelopes, but the cell- walls are thinner. 

1. Outer Epidermis. The narrow, elongated cells are wavy in outline, 
but pits are lacking or are indistinct. Isodiametric cells and thin-walled 
jointed hairs also occur. 

2. Inner Epidermis. Except at the base, where traces of mesophyl 
are sometimes evident, the inner epidermis immediately underHes the 
outer epidermis. 

Glume and Palet of Perfect Flower (Fig. 85, gp, p^). Both the glume 
and the palet of the fertile flower closely envelop the grain at maturity, 
the former being strongly convex, the latter flat except on the edges 
which clasp about the caryopsis. At the time of flowering these envelopes 
are thin and of a green color, but at maturity they are coriaceous, siHci- 
fied and of a brown or mottled color. Under a lens, numerous transverse 
wrinkles are evident on the glume and on the middle or flat portion of the 
palet, the lateral portions of the latter which clasp the caryopsis being 
smooth and shining. 

I. Outer Epidermis (Figs. 87, 88, 89). Throughout the glume and on 
the middle portion of the palet, the cells are isodiametric or moderately 




Fig. 87. Green Foxtail. Outer epidermis of glume of fertile flower, sho\ving the smooth 
edge and the wrinkled and mottled central portion. (Winton.) 

elongated and are arranged not only in longitudinal rows but also in 
irregular transverse rows, the wrinkles being formed by the outward bending 
of the cells at the end walls and the inward bending halfway between. 



GREEN FOXT/tlL. 



121 



At the time of flowering, it may be seen that at the outer surface the end 
walls arc sinuous and the side walls are compoundly sinuous (Fig. 88, /), 
but further inward the end walls arc nearly straight and the side walls 
are simply, not compoundly sinuous (Fig. 88, //), At the end of each 




III 

Fig. 88. Green Foxtail. Outer epidermis from middle of glume of fertile flower. / 
Outer surface and // inner surface soon after blooming. Ill Outer surface when in 
fruit. X 300. (WiNTON.) 

cell nearest the apex of the envelope, a cuticular wart bearing a group 
of pits is usually evident, particularly on the palet (Fig. 88, /). About 
these warts the adjoining end walls are more or less curved and the 
side walls are not so deeply sinuous. At maturity the cell cavity beneath 



122 



GRAIN. 




the wart is conspicuous (on the palet nearly circular), but at the other 
end of the cell is narrow or not evident at all owing to the encroachment 

of the strongly thickened walls (Fig. 87; 
Fig. 88, ///). 

The cell contents during the early 
stages of development are colorless, but 
later on usually become dark brown. 

The epidermal cells on the lateral or 
smooth portions of the palet which clasp 
about the car}^opsis are longer, narrower, 
and less complex than those already de- 
scribed (Fig. 89). 

At maturity the wrinkles are usually 
30-60 ,« apart. 

2. The Hypoderm Fibers may be 
readily isolated by treatment on the slide 
with caustic alkali. They vary in length 
up to 0.6 mm. and are often toothed at 
the margin. 

3. Mesophyl. Rectangular paren- 
chyma cells without intercellular spaces make up this layer. Numerous 
chlorophyl granules are present at the time of flowering. 

4. The Inner Epidermis is composed of rectangular cells resembhng 
those of the mesophyl. Both of these layers become more or less obhterated 
at maturity and are of no diagnostic importance. 

Pericarp (Figs. 90 and 91). The ventral side is flat and has a dark 
colored spot, the remains of the hilum, near the base. Extending half- 
way from the base to the apex on the dorsal side is a groove, which marks 
the position of the embr}'o. 

1. Epicarp. (ep). As in the outer epidermal layers of the floral 
envelopes the cells are elongated and wavy in outline. On the dark 
colored spot already referred to, the epidermal cells are more or less 
rectangular, 

2. The Cross Cells (q) are similar to the tube cells in form, but are 
usually shorter, broader, and more irregular in shape. 

3. Tube Cells (sch). These are 2-4 /x wide and often reach the length 
of 300 fl. 

Perisperm (N). After treatment with alkah, this layer is clearly seen 
ill surface view. The cells arc of large size and have beaded walls. 



Fig. 89. Green Foxtail. Outer epi- 
dermis from edge of glume of fertile 
flower. X300. (WiNTON.) 



GREEN FOXTAIL. 



123 



Endosperm, i. Aleurone Layer (al). The cells are 10-20 /x in 
diameter. 

2. Starch Cells (Fig. 90, s). Polygonal starch grains with conspicu- 




FiG. 90. Green Foxtail. Cross section of outer portion of fruit. F pericarp consists of 
cp epicarp, q cross cells, and sch tube cells; N perisperm; E endosperm consists of 
al aleurone cells and s starch cells. X300. (Winton.) 

ous hilum fill the parenchyma cells of the endosperm. In the outer 
layers they are from 4-8 fx in diameter, but further inward they reach 
the maximum diameter of 18 //. 

After dissolving the starch with alkali, there remains a network of 




Fig. 91. Green Foxtail. Bran coats in surface view, ep epicarp;^ q cross cells; sch tube 
cells; AT perisperm; a/ aleurone cells. X300. (Winton.) 

threads containing conspicuous granules, which is very different from the 
network of homogeneous threads obtained from polygonaceous seeds. 



124 



GRAIN. 



In this respect, however, this fruit cannot be distinguished from the 
fruits of S. glauca Beauv., S. panis Jessen, Panicum mlliaceum L. (see 
Vogl) and other species of Panicum. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The membraneous glumes with pores in the bends of the walls (Fig. 
86) and the coriaceous, transversely wrinkled, more or less spotted, 
envelopes of the fertile flower with compoundly sinuous, thickened cell- 
walls (Figs. 87 and 88) are highly characteristic of both green and yellow 
foxtail. These tissues are usually present in all stages of development. 

The fruit elements are like those of common millet and German 
millet. Treatment with alkah brings out the structure of the fruit coats 
and perisperm, and serves to distinguish this fruit from the common 
cereals. 

The starch is hardly distinguishable in form from the starch of bind- 
weed, but the network remaining after treatment with alkah is beaded. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Winton: Ueber amerikanische Weizen-Ausreuter. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm. 
1903, 6, 433. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1902, 339. 



YELLOW FOXTAIL. 

The fruit of this species {Selaria glauca Beauv., Chaetochloa glauca 
(L.) Scribn.) is larger than that of green foxtail, the envelopes are also 

proportionately larger (with the exception 
of the upper empty glume which is but 
half the length of the spikelet) and the 
wrinkles on the glume of the fertile flower 
are more pronounced (Fig. 92). 

In microscopic structure the fruits 
of the two species arc identical. The 
floral envelopes are also much ahke, the 
only distinction being in the distance 
apart of the wrinkles on the mature 
flowering glumes. In green foxtail this 
distance is usuafly 30-60 //, but in yellow 
foxtail it is often 80-120 /<. Since this 
distinction does not apply to the immature glumes and since the wrinkles 





n 



Fig. 92. Yellow Foxtail (Setaria 
glauca). Fruit inclosed in flowering 
glume and palet. / showing glume ; 
II showing palct and edge of glume. 
X8. (Photograph by W. E. Brit- 
ton.) 



DARNEL. 



125 



on the palets of the two species are practically the same, it is often diffi- 
cult to identify the species in ground mixtures. Fortunately, identifica- 
tion of the genus is all that is usually required. 



DARNEL. 

The microscopic identification of darnel (Lolium temulentum L.) is 
important, as this fruit not only is one of the commonest impurities of 
European and Californian wheat, but also contains a poisonous prin- 
ciple (temulin) which renders it highly pernicious. 

The four- to eight-flowered spikelet is inclosed within a strongly- 
nerved empty glume which, however, is seldom 
found in the threshed grain. 

Adherent to each caryopsis is a flowering glume 
6-8 mm. long, and a two- keeled palet of about the 
same size but of thinner texture (Fig. 93). The 
flowering glume is obscurely five-nerved, lobed at 
the end, and bears an upwardly- barbed awn often 
15 mm. long. In cross section the caryopsis is 
U-shaped, owing to the deep groove on the ventral 
side. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The Flowering Glume, like the glumes of barley, 
oats, and other cereals, consists of four coats, some 
of which, however, are lacking on the margins and 
at the end. 

I. The Outer Epidermis differs greatly in struc- 
ture in different parts of the glume. At the 
margins (Fig. 94) it consists of straight- walled, 

elongated cells interspersed here and there v/ith short Fig. 93. Damel {Lolium 
lance-shaped hairs. On the greater part of the sur- S" a"dTt„,''ra?sSl 
face, however, ihe cells, as in barley and some other enlarged, c dorsal side, 

, . , , . , natural size. (Nobbe.) 

cereals, are of three kmds (Fig. 95) : first, cells of 

wavy outline, into which the straight-walled cells at the margin pass; 
second, circular cells corresponding to the conical hair-cells of barley; third, 
exceedingly short, more or less crescent-shaped cells. Near the margins 
and on the veins, where they alternate with stomata, the cells of wavy 
outline are elongated; but in other parts they are very short, often being 




126 



GRAIN. 



broader than long. Although the cells are thick-walled, the walls are 
transparent, and the middle lamella is conspicuous, giving the impression 




Fig. 94. Darnel. Margin of flower- FiG. 95. 
ing glume showing lance-shaped glume, 

hairs. X 300. (Moeller.) 



Darnel. Middle portion of flowering 
X 160. (WiNTON.) 



of thin- walled cells. Pores are few and inconspicuous. Near the margin 
the circular cells are small and are usually accompanied by crescent- 
shaped cells which often exceed them_ in size. On the greater part of the 
glume, however, the circular cells are much larger, often being 70 [i in 
diameter. Numerous pores are conspicuous, both in the radial and 
tangential walls. Often one, sometimes two, crescent-shaped cells ac- 
company a circular cell. 

Characteristic of this coat are the short, wavy cells and the numerous 
circular cells, the latter frequently exceeding in area the former. 

2. Hypoderm. The fibers in this layer are much the same as in 
cereals. Fibers of similar structure also make up the ground tissue of 
the awn. 

3. Spongy Parenchyma. The elements are more or less rectangular 
in shape, like those of the corresponding layer of barley, and are readily 
distinguished from the star-shaped elements of oats. 

4. Inner Epidermis. This layer is made up of tliin-walled cells 
and stomata, and is of no diagnostic importance. 

The Palet lacks a well-developed hypoderm layer except beneath the 
keels. 

The Outer Epidermis is much the same as that of the flowering glume, 
except that it is barbed on the keels with rigid, thorn-like hairs 150 /^ 
or less in length (Fig. 96). 



DARNEL. 



127 



The Pericarp (Fig. 97, F\ Fig. 98) consists of four coats, of which 
only two, the epidermis and cross cells, are fully developed. 

I. Epidermis {ep). Cross sections of the mature seed show that 
this layer consists of collapsed, moderately thick-walled cells, which are 




Fig. 96. DarneL, Keel of palet showing outer epidermis with h hairs, and / hypoderm 

fibers. X160. (MoELLER.) 




Fig. 97. Darnel. Cross section of outer portion of fruit. F pericarp consists of ep epi- 
carp, m mesocarp, q cross cells, and sch tube cells; S spermoderm consists of a outer 
layer and •/ inner layer; A^ perisperm; / fungus layer; E endosperm consists of al 
aleurone layer, and 5/ starch cells. Xi6o. (Winton.) 

best Studied after heating with alkali. Seen in surface view, the cells 
at the apex of the seed are nearly isodiametric, but at other parts are 
elongated. The walls are indistinctly beaded. 



128 



GRAIN. 



2. The Mesocarp (m) is not developed on all parts of the seed, but 
is conspicuous on the angles. The cells vary greatly in shape and size, 




Fig. 98. Darnel. Bran coats in surface Wew. ep epicarp; m mesocarp; q cross cells; 
sch tube cells; a outer and i inner layer of spermoderm; N perisperm; / fungus layer; 
a/ aleurone cells. *Xi6o. (Winton.) 

some being irregularly isodiametric, others transversely elongated, re- 
sembling the cells of the next layer, 

3. Cross Cells (q). Especially striking are the cells of this layer, 
which resemble the cross cells of barley. The side walls are indis- 
tinctly beaded. 

4. Tube Cells, spongy parenchyma, and various intermediate forms 
(sell) make up the interrupted inner layer of the pericarp. 

Spermoderm (S). The cells are for the most part elongated and are 
often diagonally arranged with reference to the axis of the fruit. In trans- 
verse sections this coat often separates from the pericarp on the one hand 
and the perisperm on the other. Examined in water, only one cell layer 
(the inner) is evident: but successive treatments with 5 per cent alkali, 
dilute acetic acid and chlorzinc iodine, bring out two layers. 

1 . The Outer Layer (a) is made up of thin-walled cells with cuticularized 
outer walls. Treated as above described, the cuticle is colored yellow- 
brown, the radial and inner walls, blue. 

2. The Inner Layer (/) is not only thicker than the outer, but the 
cells are thicker- walled and, in addition, swell greatly with alkali. These 



DARNEL 129 

swollen walls are stained deep blue by chlorzinc iodine, thus differentiating 
them from the yellow-brown cuticle on the inner wall. 

Perisperm {N). Characteristic of this seed is the perisperm, con- 
sisting usually of two cell layers. In cross section these cells are rectan- 
gular with swollen walls; in surface view, as may be seen after soaking 
for a long time in dilute alkah, they are irregularly polygonal or more 
or less elongated. 

Fungus Layer (/). In most specimens a layer of fungus threads 20 [i 
thick is present between the perisperm and the aleurone layer. So com- 
monly is this fungus present in darnel grown in Europe, that it is of no 
little value in identifying the grain; but it remains to be determined 
whether in California, where the plant is a pest in wheat fields, the fungus 
is also a common accompaniment. After treatment with alkali this 
layer is stained bright yellow by zinc chloride iodine. 

Endosperm, i. The Aleurone Cells {al) vary from less than 20 to 
40 n in diameter. 

2. Starch Parenchyma (Fig. 97, st). The thin-walled cells contain 
small polygonal grains 3-7 /x in diameter. The individual starch grains 
are not distinguishable from the grains of rice and oats, and like the 
latter often occur in aggregates of various sizes. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The characteristic elements of darnel are the epidermis (Fig. 95) of 
the glumes and palets, and the fungus layer (Fig. 98, /). The cross cells 
{q) and starch grains (Fig. 97, st) aid in identification, though the 
former may be readily confounded with the corresponding tissue of 
barley and the latter with the starch grains of oats. The spongy paren- 
chyma of the flowering glume resembles that of barley, but is readily 
distinguished from the spongy parenchyma of oat glumes. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Mace (26); Moeller (29); Villiers et 
Collin (42); Vogl(4s). 
Hanausek, T. F.: Vorlaufige Mittheilung iiber den von A. VogI in der Frucht von 

Lolium temiilentiim entdeckten Pilz. Ber. deutsch. hot. Ges. 1898, 16, 203. 
Nestler: Ueber einen in der Frucht von Lolium temulentum L. vorkommenden Pilz. 

Ber. deutsch. bot. Ges. 1898, 16, 207. 
Vogl: ]\Iehl und die anderen Mahlproducte der Cerealien und Leguminosen. Ztschr. 

Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1898, 12, 25. 
Winton: Anatomie der Friichte des Taumellolches und der Roggentrespe. Ztschr. 

Unters. Nahr.-Genussm. 1904, 7, 321. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1903, 165. 



I.IO 



GRAIN. 



CHESS. 

Chess (Bromus secalinus L.) is one of the commonest weeds of grain 
fields, both in Europe and America, and the fruit is a common constituent 
of uncleaned grain, screenings, and various by-products. 

The fruit when invested by the flowering glume and palet closely 
resembles darnel, but the awn of the flowering glume is short or absent. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Flowering Glume. The structure throughout is much the same as 
in darnel, but the cells of the outer epidermis (Fig. 99) are much more 




Fig. 99. Chess {Brnmiis 
secalinus). Outer epi- 
dermis of flowering glume 
in surface view. X i6o. 

(WiNTON.) 



Fig. 100. Chess. Cross section of outer portion of fruit. 
F pericarp consists of ep, epicarp, and q cross cells; 
S spermoderm; N perisperm; E endosperm consists of 
al aleurone layer, and st starch parenchyma. Xi6o. 

(WlNTON.) 



conspicuously thick-walled, and the wa\T-walled cells are throughout 
much longer than broad. The circular cells also have wavy walls. The 
cells on the margins, interspersed with lance-shaped hairs, are the same 
as in darnel. 

Palet. The flowering glume and palet are similar in structure, but 
the outer epidermis of the latter is barbed on the keel, the stiff hairs often 
reaching 45 a in length. 

Pericarp (Fig. 100, F\ Fig. loi). The pericarp consists of two layers 
with rudiments of another layer in parts. 

I. The Epicarp Cells {ep) are large, elongated polygonal, and have 
thin, non-porous walls. 



CHESS. 



131 



2. Mesocarp. As a rule, the cross cells immediately underlie the 
epidermis; but occasionally traces of the mesocarp are evident. 

3. Cross Cells (q). Whether this layer corresponds with the cross 
cells or the tube cells of other grasses is uncertain. The tissue is made 




Fig. ioi. Chess Bran coals in surface view, ep epicarp; q cross cells; S spermoderm; 
N perisperm; al aleurone cells. X160. (Winton.) 

up of irregular spongy parenchyma cells, usually transversely elongated 
with large, round or elongated intercellular spaces. 

The Spermoderm (S) consists of one layer of elongated brown cells 
15-20 jj. wide. 

Perisperm (N). This layer is enormously developed. As may be 
seen in cross section, the cells are 40 ;j. thick, but tne walls are so swollen 
as to almost entirely obliterate the cavity. After soaking for some time 
in t| per cent soda solution they are evident in surface view. 

Endosperm, i. The Aleurone Layer (al) is not of especial interest. 

2. The Starch-Parenchyma (Fig. 100, st) is remarkable for the thick- 
ness of the cell- walls (often lo //) and the elliptical starch grains 3-20 {i 
in diameter. With proper illumination each grain may be seen to have 
an elliptical hilum. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Especially characteristic are the thick-walled parenchyma cells (Fig. 
100, si) with elhptical starch grains. The cross cells (Fig. loi, q) also 
are of diagnostic importance. The epidermis (Fig. 99) of the flowering 



132 GRAIN. 

glume is distinguished from that of darnel by the bolder outlines of the 
W'a\7-walled cells and their greater length, as well as by the structure 
of the circular cells. The hairs on the keels of the palet are longer 
than those of darnel. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Vogl: Die wichtigsten vegetabilischen Nahrungs- u. Genussmittel. Berlin u. 'V\^en, 

1899, 36. 
Winton: Anatomie der Friichte des Taumellolches und der Roggentrespe. Ztschr. 

Unters. Nahr.-Genussm. 1904, 7, 321. Conn. Agr, Exp. Sta. 1903, 165. 

BUCKWHEATS [Polygonacec^). 

Although buckwheat and other polygonaceous plants are botanically 
widely removed from the cereals, the fruits of the two families are quite 
similar in structure, as well as in chemical composition. In both, the 
pericarp is thin and dry, and the single seed consists of a thin spermoderm, 
a bulky endosperm with aleurone and starch cells, and a relatively small 
embryo. The following characters are peculiar to buckwheats: (i) 
the thin leaf -like or colored perianth, (2) the brown or black pericarp, 
without hairs, (3) the network of homogeneous threads remaining after 
dissolving the starch grains in alkah. The structure of the spermoderm 
taken as a whole is also characteristic, although some of the layers are 
quite like tissues found in the cereals. 

The starch grains are of the rice type, but they do not occur in rounded 
aggregates. 

COMMON BUCKWHEAT. 

Nearly all the buckwheat raised in Europe and America as well as 
the larger part of that raised in oriental countries belongs to a single 
species {Fagopyriim esciilentum Mcench), a native of Central Asia. Tar- 
tary buckwheat {F. Tartaricum Gaert.), a less valuable species, is described 
in the following chapter. 

The sharply triangular, pointed, dark-brown or gray-brown achenes 
are 5-8 mm. long and 3-4 mm. broad. Fragments of the calyx are often 
attached to the base. A nerve passes longitudinally through the middle 
of each of the three sides. The seed completely fills the pericarp, but 
is not grown to it and is readily separated by machinery. On the other 
hand, the spermoderm adheres closely to the endosperm and is not en- 



COMMON BUCKI4/HEAT. 



^Z5 



tirely removed in milling. The embryo, with broad but thin cotyledons, 
is embedded in the endosperm, and is so folded that, in cross section, it 
is S-shaped. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Pericarp (Figs. 102 and 103). Sections are cut after soaking for 
some time in water. Surface preparations are obtained by scraping 




Fig. 102. Buckwheat {Fagopyritm esculentum). Cross section of the pericarp at one 
of the angles showing the epicarp, the hypoderm of sclerenchyma elements with fibro- 
vascular bundle {g), the brown parenchyma {p), and the inner layers of obliterated 

cells. X160. (MOELLER.) 

with a scalpel, after boiling for an hour in i| per cent alkali to remove 
a portion of the brown coloring matter. 

^ ^ f 




Fig. 103. Buckwheat. Isolated elements of the pericarp, o epicarp; p parenchyma 
(the upper group from a bundle); / hypoderm fibers; ep inner epidermis; sp spiral 

vessel. X160. (MOELLER.) 

I. The Epicarp Cells (0) are elongated, rounded quadrilateral and 
range up to 100 /< in length and 20 /i in breadth. Diagonally extended 



134 



GR/IIN. 



pores on tlie outer wall, crossing those of the inner wall at nearly- 
right angles, give the layer a pecuHarly characteristic latticed appear- 
ance. Owing also to these pores the radial walls appear indistinctly 
beaded. On each of the three faces of the fruit the cells of both 
the epidermis and the hypoderm are pinnately arranged either side of 
the central vein, but on the angles of the fruit they are longitudinally 
extended. 

2. The Hypoderm (/) consists of several layers of short libers (up 
to 150 // long, 10-15 11 broad), with thick porous walls. The narrow 
cavities contain a brown substance. 

3. Brown Parenchyma (p). Only a single thin layer of parenchyma 
is present in the faces of the pericarp, but in the angles there are several 
layers. The cells are either isodiametric or elongated, with rather thick 

^ walls impregnated with a brown sub- 

"* stance. This same substance is also 

found in the other layers, though m 

smaller amount. Through this tissue 

pass the bundles of the veins. 

4. An Endocarp (ep), for the most 
part of large, elongated, mostly pointed 
cells, with somewhat thickened walls. 




Spermoderm (Figs. 104 and 105). 



Fig. 104. Buckwheat. Cross section covers the inner surface, 
of outer portion of seed. Spermo- 
derm consists of o outer epidermis, 
m spongy parenchyma, and ep inner ^f^g^ ^j-^g removal of the pericarp the 
epidermis; endosperm consists oi ^ ^ _ ^ , 

K aleurone cells and E starch cells, seed is Seen to be covered with a thm, 
XI 60. (MoELLER.) yellowish membrane, which is best ex- 

amined in cold dilute alkah. The three superimposed layers are easily 
found on careful focusing. 

1. Outer Epidermis (0). Wavy-walled cells, isodiametric or some- 
what elongated, form a conspicuous epidermal layer. 

2. Spongy Parenchyma (m). Cells of various shapes, with numerous 
round intercellular spaces, underhe the epidermis, and with it form a 
most valuable means of identification. Greenish or brownish-yellow 
cell contents render this layer particularly distinct. 

3. An Inner Epidermis (ep) of elongated, thin-walled cells, is readily 
found after the addition of cold dilute alkali. 

Endosperm (Figs. 104 and 105). i. Aleurone Cells (K) similar to 
those of the true cereals form an outer coat one cell layer thick. In 
cross section the cells are seen to be somewhat tangentiallv extended. 



COMMON BUCKIVHEAT. 



135 



Surface mounts show that the cells are exceedingly variable both in size 
and wall thickness. 

2. Starch Parenchyma (E). Cells of large size with thin walls contain 
the densely crowded, polygonal starch grains (Fig. 106). Isolated cells 




Fig. 105. Buckwheat. Bran coats in surface view. Spermoderm consists of o outer 
epidermis, m spongy parenchyma, and ep inner epidermis; K aleurone cells. X300. 

(MOELLER.) 

(Fig. 107) closely packed with grains are the most striking constituents 
of mill products. The starch grains range from less than 2 to over 15 ju 




Fig. 106. Buckwheat Starch. X300. (Moellee.) 

but are commonly 6-12 /x. They are either round or more commonly 
rounded polygonal and usually display a conspicuous hilum. Although 
the grains arc never united into circular or eUiptical aggregates, such as 
occur in rice, oats, and darnel, two or more of them are often joined to 
form a rod-like aggregate. As noted by Vogl these aggregates are often 
curiously constricted, and the contact surfaces of the individuals are 
indistinct. 



136 



GR^IN. 



Vogl also found that, on treating the starch masses with alkali, there 
was obtained a network of homogeneous threads (Fig. 108), not beaded 




\ 



>: 



\. 



Fig. 107. Buckwheat. Starch grains in masses. Xiio. (Leach.) 

as in Setaria and Panicum, corresponding to the outhne of the dissolved 
grains. This phenomenon is also common to various species of Poly- 
gonum and Rumcx nnd is probably characteristic of the entire family. 




Fig. 108. Buckwheat. Starch cells of endosperm Fig. loq. 
showing at the left network of homogeneous 
threads remaining after treatment with alkah. 
(Vogl.) 



Buckwheat. Longitudinal 
section of cotyledon, o epidermis; 
p mesophyl; g procambium or in- 
cipient bundle. (Moeller.) 



Embryo (Fig. 109). As appears in cross section, the two cotyledons 
consist of a mesophyl (p) between an outer and inner epidermis, and the 
elongated cells of the procambium ig) or incipient bundle running through 
the mesophyl. 

The Mesophyl consists of small, polygonal cells with protoplasmic 
contents, the epidermis, of somewhat larger and more sharply dehned 
cells of more or less elongated form. 



COMMON BUCKIVHEAT. 1 37 



DIAGNOSIS. 

The whole grain is esteemed in Europe as a poultry food. It is seldom 
ground with the hulls. 

Decorticated Products. Buckwheat Flour is employed, especially in 
America, for maldng griddle cakes. To the touch it has a pecuhar harsh- 
ness quite unhke the soft feehng of wheat and rye flour. It consists of 
parenchyma cells packed with starch grains (Fig. 107), isolated starch 
grains (Fig. 106), and occasional fragments of the spermoderm (Fig. 105). 

The individual starch grains are much like those of oats, rice, and 
darnel, but they are never united into rounded aggregates. They are 
distinguished from Setaria and Paniaun starch by the network of homo- 
geneous threads left after treatment with alkah (Fig. 107). The rod- 
shaped and constricted aggregates are characteristic. Of greatest value 
in diagnosis are the fragments of the spermoderm (Fig. 105), consist- 
ing of the wavy-walled cells of the outer epidermis, the spongy paren- 
chyma with greenish cell-contents and the elongated cells of the inner 
epidermis. 

Buckwheat flour is often adulterated with cheaper flour. Of 107 
samples examined in 1900 by the author, 26 contained wheat flour or 
wheat middlings, 9 maize flour," and 9 both wheat and maize flour. 

Prepared or Sell-raising Buckwheat Flour are names applied in 
America to griddle-cake preparations containing such proportions of salt 
and baking-powder that they may be prepared for cooking by simply 
mixing with water or milk. The flour in these preparations is either 
pure buckwheat flour or various mixtures of buckwheat, wheat, maize, 
rice, and barley flour. If, as is usually the case, the baking-powder used 
contains corn-starch as a filler, traces of this starch will be found under 
the microscope. 

Buckwheat Grits is a valuable food for the common people in Russia 
and some oriental countries. It contains the same elements as the flour. 

By-products. Buckivheat Middlings, a by-product from the manu- 
facture of the flour, is readily identified by the tissues of the spermoderm 
(Fig. 105). It is used as a cattle food and also as an adulterant of spices. 

Buckwheat Hulls have little food value, but make good packing. 
They have been extensively ground for adulterating black pepper. The 
latticed epicarp cells (Fig. 103, 0) and the hypoderm fibers (/) are of chief 
value in identification. 



13S GRAIN. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer, (6, 23); Hanausek, T. F. (10, 
16); Harz (18); Leach (25); Mace (26); Moeller (29); Planchon et Collin (34); 
Schimper (37); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42);-Vogl (43, 45); 
Wittmack (10). 

Also see Bibliography of Wheat, pp. 72 and 73. 
H..\x.AUSEK, T. F.: Reis- und Buchweizenstarke. Chem. Ztg. 1894, 18, No. 2,3- 
Meyer, Arthur: Arch. d. Pharm. 1883, 912. 
Tschirch: Starkemehlanalysen. Archiv. d. Pharm. 1885, 23, 521. 



TARTARY BUCKWHEAT. 

Indian wheat, Tartary buckwheat, or duckwheat (Fagopyruni Tartari- 
cum Gasrtn.) is known chiefly in the East. In Piedmont and some other 
cold, mountainous regions, it lias been grown to some extent, as it ripens 
earlier than the common sort. 

The grains are dull brown and have a marked longitudinal groove 
nmning through each of the three faces. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Pericarp, i. The Epicarp Cells are isodiametric or somewhat elonga- 
ted with thin, non-porous walls. On the inner surface they are convex, 
fitting into corresponding concave depressions of the next layer. 

2. Hypoderm. In the outer two or more layers the fibers are trans- 
versely extended, but in the inner layer they are arranged longitudinally. 

3. The Brown Parenchyma is much like that of common buckwheat. 

4. An Endocarp of thin-walled cells completes the pericarp. 

The Spermoderm, Endosperm, and Embryo are the same as in common 
buckwheat. 

BLACK BINDWEED. 

Of the several common weeds belonging to the genus Polygonum, 
black bindweed or wild buckwheat (P. Convolvulus L.) is the most trouble- 
some. Although a native of the Old World, it thrives luxuriantly in the 
grain fields of the United States, and the seed is the chief impurity of Ameri- 
can wheat. Samples of wheat screenings from the leading wheat-growing 
states of the Union contained from 8 to 27 per cent of this seed. 

The jet black, lusterless, triangular achenes are 3 mm. long and the faces 
are 2 mm. broad (Fig. no, II). Since the achenes at maturity are closely 



BLACK BINDtVEED. 



139 



invested by the calyx (/), both are harvested together; but during thresh- 
ing, screening, and transportation, the dr}^ calyx, as a rule, is removed 





n 



Fig. 1 10. Black Bindweed {Polygonum 
Convolvulus). I Fruit with calyx. 
II Fruit without calyx. X5. (Win- 
ton.) 



E 



Fig. III. Black Bindweed. Cross section of 
fruit. C calyx; Epi epicarp; Mes meso- 
carp; B fibro-vascular bundle; 5 spermo- 
derm; E endosperm; Em embryo. X16. 

(WiNTON.) 



from the achenes, and the pericarp, splitting at the angles, is often sepa- 
rated from the seed. 

The seed consists of a thin, colorless spermodcrm, a starchy endosperm, 
and a minute embryo situated in a longitudinal groove of the endospem^ 
at one of the angles. 

HISTOLOGY. 
Calyx (Figs, in and 112, C). The three outer lobes of the five- to 
six-lobed calyx are broader than the others and are slightly keeled at the 
angles. 

1. Outer Epidermis (Fig. 112, aep). Distributed over the outer surface 
are numerous characteristic blunt-conical or nipple-shaped papilla from 
3c^6o !i in diameter at the base, each of which is marked with longitudinal 
stnations. These papilla, as may be seen in transverse section, are 
the outer portions of the epidermal cells, the inner portions forming a 
continuous cell layer. 

2. Mesophyl (m). Between the outer and inner epidermis are several 
layers of chlorophyl-containing parenchyma with intercellular spaces 

3. Inner Epidermis (iep). Elongated cells with more or less waw 
outline and varying in length up to 200 n. and in breadth from 15-45 ^ 
interspersed here and there with stomata, make up the inner coat of the 
calyx. 

Pericarp (Figs. 1 13-1 1 5). The black hulls or shells of the grain should 
be studied m cross section and in surface preparations, the latter being 



14© 



GRAIN. 



freed from the black coloring matter by warming on the shde with caustic 
alkali, or better by boihng for half an hour with i^ per cent sodium hydrate 
solution as in the determination of crude fiber. 

I. Epicarp (cpi). Cross sections show that the cells are about loo ft 
in radial diameter on the sides of the achenes and are still longer at the 



aep— 




Fig. 112. Black Bindweed. Cross section of calyx and angle of fruit. C calyx consists 
of aep outer epidermis, m mesophyl, and iep inner epidermis; F pericarp consists of 
epi epicarp with w cuticular wart, p mesocarp, and end endocarp; 5 spermoderm con- 
sists of ae outer epidermis, q cross cells, and ie inner epidermis; E endosperm consists 
of (.'/ aleurone cells and s starch cells. Xi6o. (Winton.) 

angles. The inner wall is thin, but the outer wall and the outer portions 
of the curiously wrinkled radial walls are strongly thickened. Proceeding 
from the inner wall outward, the radial walls increase in thickness until 
the much-branched cell cavity is almost obliterated. On the surface 
are numerous warts from 1 5-30 >x in diameter, into each of which a narrow 
branch of the cell cavity passes. 

Surface preparations of the pericarp with the outer surface upper- 



BLACK BIN DIVE ED. 



141 



most clearly show that the warts are arranged m irregular longitudinal 
rows, also that the epicarp cells at the surface are sinuous in outline 







Fig. 113. Black Bindweed. Epicarp in 
surface view showing wavy outline of 
cells and cuticular warts. X 160. 

(WiNTON.) 




Fig. 114. Black Bindweed. Tangential 
section of epicarp. X 1 60, (Win- 
ton.) 



(Fig. 113), but further inward gradually approach a circular form 
(Fig. 114). 



epi 










Fig. 115. Black Bindweed. Surface view of pericarp from below, epi epicarp; hy 
hypoderm; p mesocarp with g bundle. X160. (Winton.) 

.A.S may be seen in preparations of the pericarp with the inner surface 
uppermost, the contour of the inner cell-walls of the epicarp is, like the 
outer wall, sinuous in outline (Fig. 115, epi). 



142 



GR/^IN. 



2. Hypoderni (Figs. 112 and 115, hy). Beneath the epicarp is a layer 
of shghtly elongated parenchyma cells somewhat larger than the cells of 
the mesocarp. 

3. Mesocarp {p). At the angles of the fruit this layer is somewhat 
thicker than on the sides. The cells of the ground tissue are thin-walled 
and isodiametric, those of the inner layers being more or less obliterated 
in the ripe fruit. Six primary, sparingly branched vascular bundles 
pass longitudinally through the ground tissue of the mesocarp, one in 
each angle and one in each of the faces. 

4. Endocarp (Fig. 112, end). Like the inner mesocarp, the cells are 
usually obhterated in the mature seed and are seldom evident either in 
cross section or in surface view. 

Spermoderm (Fig. 112,6'; Fig. 116). Three coats, analogous to those 
of buckwheat, but diilering in form, make up the spermoderm. 



ae- 




FiG. 116. Black Bindweed. Seed in surface view, ae outer epidermis, q cross cells, and 
le inner epidermis of spermoderm; al aleurone cells. Xi6o. (Winton.) 

1. Epidermis (ae). As in buckwheat, the epidermal cells are wavy 
in outhne; but they are strongly elongated, whereas in buckwheat they 
are nearly isodiametric. 

2. Cross Cells (q). Most of the cells of this layer are elongated, 
resembling the tube cells of cereals; but short cells of more irregular shape 
also occur, particularly near the base and apex. In no part do they form 
a spongy parenchyma with circular intercehidar spaces like that of buck- 
wheat. 



BLACK BIND IV BED. 



143 



3. Inner Epidermis (ie). The coat consists of thin-walled, elongated 
elements. 

Endosperm (Figs, iii and 112, E). None of the elements are dis- 
tinguishable from those of buckwheat, either in form or size. 

1. Aleurone Cells (Figs. 112 and 116, al) are of variable size and 
irregular shape. 

2. Starch Cells (Fig. 112, s). In the outer layers the cells are tangen- 
tially elongated; further inward, they are radially elongated and of large 
size. The polygonal or rounded grains vary in diameter from 3-12 //. 

As in buckwheat and other species of Polygonum and Rumex, a netv/ork 
of homogeneous threads, corresponding to the outhne of the starch grains, 
remains behind after dissolving out the starch in alkali. 

The Embryo, consisting of an elongated radicle and two oblong coty- 
ledons, may be conveniently isolated by soaking the seed in ij per cent 
caustic soda solution for some hours until the starch is removed. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Ground screenings containing a large percentage of this seed has 
been sold in the United States as a fodder ("Germ Middhngs, " etc.), and 
has been used as an adulterant of ground pepper. Fragments of the 
seed, particularly the black hulls, are frequently encountered as an acci- 
dental impurity in bran and other by-products. 

Characteristic of this fruit are the papilke on the outer epidermis 
(Fig. 112, aep) of the calyx, also the epicarp (Fig. 113) with sinuous cell- 
walls and rows of warts. 

The outer epidermal cells (Fig. 116, ae) of the spermoderm are 
sinuous in outline, like those of buckwheat, but are commonly more 
elongated. 

Although the cross cells iq) are morphologically the same as the spongy 
parenchyma of buckwheat, they resemble more nearly in structure the 
tube cells of the cereals. 

The starch grains, also the network of homogeneous threads obtained 
after treatment with alkah, are characteristic of the family, not of the 
, species. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Kraus: Pringsh. Jahrb. f. wissensch. Bot. 1866, 5, St,. 

ViLLiERS ET Collin: Traite des Alterations et Falsifications. Paris, 1900, 103. 
Winton: Ueber amerikanische Weizen-Ausreuter. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm. 
i903> 6, 433- Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1902, 339. 



144 GRAIN. 

OTHER POLYGON ACEOUS SEEDS. 

A number of European and American species of Polygonum and 
Rumex are troublesome weeds. 

The black or brown seeds are either triangular or flattened, rough 
or more commonly lustrous. 

The anatomical structure of most of them resembles that of black 
bindweed. The epicarp cells in surface view are commonly sinuous 
with or without cuticular warts; the starch grains polygonal, of the buck- 
wheat type. 



WEED SEEDS. 

Of the weeds which infest grain fields, some are so low-growin^ that 
they escape cutting with the grain, others ripen their seed before or after 
the grain is harvested, and others still, including some of the rankest 
weeds, have such small seeds that they do not appreciably add to the 
weight of the grain. Of the seeds harvested with the grain by far the larger 
part, being larger or smaller than the grain, are separated as screenings, 
so that the cleaned grain is nearly, although never quite, free of foreign 
seeds. 

European Screenings. According to Vogl the commonest weed seeds 
of European grain are Agrosiemma Githago L. (cockle) and legumes, 
although the following occur in considerable quantities: Vaccaria parvi- 
flora IMoench (cow herb) ; Species of Galium (bed straws) ; Bifora radians 
M. B.j Bromus secalinus L. (chess); Loliuni temidentum L, (darnel); 
Avena jatua L. (wild oats); Cenlaurea Cyanus L. (corn flower); Papaver 
Rhoeaslj. (corn poppy); Lithospermum arvenseL,.; Species of A triplex; 
Convolvulus arvensls L, (small bindweed); Species of Polygonum, espe- 
cially P. Convolvulus L. (black bindweed) ; Melampyrum arvense L. (cow 
wheat); Alectorolophus hirsutus Allion; Delphinium Consolida L. (lark- 
spur); Ranunculus arvcnsis L. (buttercup); etc. Fruits of species Setaria 
(foxtail) and some umbelhferous plants, seeds of cruciferous plants, etc., 
occur only in small amounts. 

In a sample of Avhcat screenings from one of the largest steam mills 
near Vienna, Vogl found: broken wheat 41.7 per cent, cockle 42.7 per 
cent, legumes 6.4 per cent, bed straws ^.7, per cent, Atriplex 3.1 per cent. 
Polygonum species i.i per cent, miscellaneous 0.6 per cent; while in 
another sample he found broken wheat, etc., 42.1 per cent, cockle 29.7 
per cent, legumes ii.i per cent, Bijora radians 4.9 per cent, bed straws 
3.5 per cent. Polygonum species 2.0 per cent, cow wheat 2.5 per cent, 
cruciferous species 1.4 per cent, miscellaneous 2.3 per cent. 

A sample of so-called "tares" consisted chiefly of legumes with 

■ 145 



146 IVEED SEEDS. 

small amounts of broken wheat, cockle, etc. One known as " chicken or 
small wheat" consisted largely of small wheat kernels mixed with chess 
(4.3 per cent) and other fruits and seeds, including three kernels of foxtail. 

The foreign matter in a sample of uncleaned wheat was chess, cockle 
and small amounts of other impurities, including two fruits of black bind- 
weed. 

American Screenings. The chief wheat-growing regions of America 
may be divided into three sections: First, the spring wheat section of 
the middle west, including Kansas, Ohio, Indiana, Missouri, Illinois, 
southern Nebraska, southern Michigan, and the adjoining states to 
the south; second, the winter wheat section of the middle northwest^ 
including the states of Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, Iowa, 
Wisconsin, northern Nebraska, and Canada; third, the Pacific section, 
including the states of California, Oregon, and Washington. 

Botanical analyses of screenings from the first two of these sections 
are given on p. 147. 

From these it appears that the screenings of the Old and New World 
are quite different at the present time. Of the two chief constituents 
of European screenings, cockle occurs in small amount and leguminous 
seeds not at all in the American product, while the three leading seeds 
of American screenings (black bindweed, green foxtail, and yellow fox- 
tail), although introduced from Europe, are of minor importance in 
their native land. Chess is often met with in considerable amount on 
both continents. 

No a.nalyses of screenings from the Pacific coast are available, but 
it is well known that the product differs markedly in constitution from 
that of the East. 

Hilgard 1 in 1890 stated that in Cahfornia all of the species of Poly- 
gonum excepting P. aviculare were almost unknown, and chess, although 
found here and there, had failed to gain a footliold as a weed. 

Darnel {Lolium temulentum L.) and wild oats (Avena jatua L.) were 
named, however, as serious pests in the California wheat fields. 

Uses of Screenings. The seeds of charlock are separated in large 
quantities from the screenings of the spring wheat section of the United 
States, and are used as a substitute for true mustard. It is probable 
that some of the samples described in the table on p. 147 represent the 
residue after this separation. 

Screenings are particularly adapted for poultry food, as poultrv pick 

' California Agricultural Experiment Statit^n Report, 1S90, p. 23S. 



IVEED SEEDS. 



147 



C P 2 5 s » ^ 
o - S tJ3 o 



n !<: o M o^ a 

o s rt S 3; p o 
^j 2 3 '^,_^ *5 ^ 

2^ ^ o 5- - ^ " 






i-j ^ ti -^. 

C P ;^. g- 



td 



V 



t^ — - re 

■ is ^ ^ 

5^ a >! o 

. s' s- a''?' 

s ~ ^ og 

MS- 2 :: 
~ a. ^ 
^ s- ~ 



p_3-g. 

CT) p -• 



OjOOOOOoOjO'-^m OOCa) i-i 00 -vO 

o'~* 

I0OOOOnCn4-OOnWO004^10 

O O O -H O to O O COM'^ OC^^jxO 

0~-' 

+• O O 10 O O -;- O " ro ;>0 10 10 VI 

Oj to O to O :>J to O '-n ^j to ^l 4* O v'^ 

C 

OOOC/^OloOO-l^4-CO^toCO 



From Mill in Nev 
York Citv. 



From Mill inMil- 
waukee. 



Average of Five 
Largest Mills in 
Minneapolis. 



" 3 O O O tooo 00 00 m4_OxO 

• o « ■ 

K)o-^loc^>-l'-'C^oocc4-Otoc^ 



From Mill in 
Detroit. 



MOooo2oooooooc»vf5 

o <=^ 

toOOOOaOC^OO"OOCO 



From Mill in Alton, 
Ill.i 



O O O i-i Oj to 



Oj O '-a O" 4- O C/) DC 00 C> CC O 10 Oj 



" O O O M Oj C>j p O Oj ^I 4- Oj 
O OnOOj toO^Jrt^lO O to O 



<5 OvO'-n O^lO o O 



0000-iC^4^0CwOOoOjOnO -vQ 
00 O '-n. to -O O O O 'O On^J '-n O 

M O O « O to O to M '_n 00 n Co Ov\Q 

O 0"i 

O C>J 01 w c^ ^4 ^j to O O O Oo -^ ■ 

C -I to 4_ 

-O coo OCOOnO o'o O m CC'vi o 



a'w 


a 


z 


•rt 


•z, 


d' 












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W 


c 





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B) 


K 


c 


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a 




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O 
> 



148 , IVEED SEEDS. 

out the valuable seeds one by one, avoiding any that are distasteful. 
They are also used for feeding sheep, swine, and other farm animals. 
In Chicago, New York, and some other grain centers, ordinary screenings 
are separated into two products, one consisting largely of broken and 
shrunken wheat, the other of weed seeds, notably black bindweed, green 
foxtail and yellow foxtail. The weed seeds are made into proprietary 
cattle foods sold under such names as "germ middlings," "seed meal," 
etc., and are used also as adulterants. 

Examination of Screenings and Products of Screenings. 

Samples of unground screenings may be separated into their con- 
stituents by sifting and careful sorting. The individual seeds are best 
identified with the aid of a standard collection (see p. 11). 

Microscopic examination coupled with determinations of the proxi- 
mate constituents is sufficient for the identification of mill products of 
screenings, and also for the detection of weed seeds in various cereal 
products, spices, etc. 

Seeds of graminaceous and polygonaceous weeds are described with 
the cereals (pp. 118-132) and buckwheats (pp. 138-144). The following 
belong to other famihes. 



CARYOPHYLLACEOUS SEEDS 

( CaryophyllacecB) . 

COCKLE. 

One of the chief impurities in European grain is the seed of cockle 
{Agrosiemma Githago L.). This seed is also found in American wheat, 
but in smaller amount than the fruit of black bindweed, green foxtail, 
and yellow foxtail. 

The black or dark-brown campylotropous seeds are globular-kidney- 
shaped, resembling a rolled-up caterpillar (Fig. 117). Rows of stout 
warts arranged in semicircular lines about the hilum are evident even to 
the naked eye and especially to the sense of touch. The long, yellow- 
green embryo forms a ring about the pure white, mealy endosperm. 

Cockle is an especially undesirable impurity in grain, as it contains 
a poisonous principle known as "sapotoxin. " 



COCKLE. 



149 



HISTOLOGY.- 

Spermoderm. i. Ouler Epidermis (Fig. 118, 0; Fig. 119). Highly 
characteristic of cockle are the large, more or less elongated (up to 600 /i 




Fig. 117. Cockle {A gro- 
stemma Githago). 
Natural size and 
enlarged. (Nobbe.) 




:e 



Fig. 118. Cockle. Cross section of outer portion of seed. 
Spermoderm consists of o outer epidermis, p parenchyma, 
and e inner epidermis; E endosperm consists of thin-walled 
cells containing s/ starch aggregates. Xi6o. (Moeller.) 



long) epidermal cells, with enormously thickened, deeply sinuous, brown 
walls. These cells form humps, covered on the outer surface with numer- 




FlG. 119. Cockle. Outer epidermis of spermoderm in surface view. Xi6o. (Moeller.) 



ous fine warts. They contain a brown substance which is not removed 
by dilute alkah even on boiling. 

2. Parenchyma (Figs. 118 and 120, p). Beneath the epidermis are 
one or more layers of parenchyma cells with somewhat thickened, brown 



15° 



PVEED SEEDS. 



walls. These, like the cells of the epidermis, are more or less transversely 
elongated. 

3. Reticulated Cells (e). A layer of colorless, isodiametric polygonal 
cells with delicate reticulations adjoins the endosperm. Some authors 




Fig. 120. Cockle. Inner layers of spermoderm in surface view, p parenchyma; e inner 
epidermis. X160. (Moeller.) 

describe this layer as the inner epidermis of the spermoderm; Vogl, 
however, regards it as perisperm. 

Endosperm (Fig. 118, E). The large cells contain highly character- 
istic, oval-fusiform, club-shaped, or, less often, globular bodies 20-100 fi 
in diameter, composed of minute (scarcely measurable) starch grains. 
These starch bodies slowly disintegrate in cold water, the liberated grains 
displaving lively molecular movements. 

The Embryo contains aleurone grains of considerable size. 



DIAGNOSIS. 



The epidermal layer often occurs as pieces of considerable size in 
bran and similar coarse products. If examined under a lens or held 



COfV HERB. SOAPJVORT. 151 

with a needle and scraped with a scalpel, the rough surface (Fig. 117) 
IS very evident. Under the microscope, a glance sul^ces for the identi- 
fication of this remarkable tissue (Fig. 119). The coloring matter is little 
acted on by alkali. Equally striking are the starch masses (Fig. 118, 5/) 
of the endosperm. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (6, 10, 23); Hanausek, T. F. (16); 
Harz (18); Mace (26); Moeller (29); Schimper (37); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); 
Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (45); Wittmack (10). 
Benecke: Ueber den Nachweis des Samens der Kornrade (Agrostemma Gilhago L.) 

in Mahlprodukten. Landw. Vers. -Stat. 31, 407. 
Kruskal: Ueber Agrostemma Githago. Arb. d. pharmakol. Inst. Dorpat. 1891, 6, 

116. 
Lehmann: Arch. Hyg. 1893, 19, 104. 
Meyer, A.: Mikroskopischer Nachweis von Radenmehl in Getreidemehlen. Han- 

noversche Monatsschrift "Wider die Nahrungsfalscher," 1880, Heft X. 
Petermann: Sur la presence des graines de Lychnis Githago (nielle) dans les farines. 

Ann. chim. phys. 1880, 19, 243. 

COW HERB. 

The globular seeds of Vaccaria parviflora Moench {Saponaria Vac- 
caria L.) are a common impurity of European wheat. 

In general structure they resemble cockle, but are distinguished by 
the more uniform height of the epidermal cells (Fig. 121) and especially 
by the absence of papilla;- on these cells. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (45). 

SOAPWORT. 

Soapwort, or touncing bet (Saponaria officinalis L.), a common road- 
side weed wnth a handsome flower, has a roughened, dark brown seed 
smalle. than cockle (1-1.5 mm.), but closely resembling it in other re- 
spects. 

The wavy epidermal cells are not warty. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
Harz: Samenkunde, p. 1081. 



152 



IVEED SEEDS. 



SPURREY. 

The seeds of common spiirrey {Spergula arvensis L.) often occur in 
linseed-cake and other concentrated feeds. 



« A ,j 




'^ A 






1> 



I ■^iA;^^ 



-^'^ 



•) 



s^ 



^' 



s 



Fig. 121. Cow Herb {Vaccaria parviflora). Outer epidermis of spermoderm in surface 

view. (MOELLER.) 

They are 1-1.5 mm. broad, circular in outhne, and shghtly flattened. 
The seed itself is dark brown, but is encircled 
by a narrow wing of a straw color. 

This seed is readily identified under the 
microscope by the curious club-shaped, warty 
bodies on the outer surface, which are but 
modified epidermal cells (Fig. 123). The other 
epidermal cells are sinuous in outline like those 
of cockle and many other seeds of the same 





Fig. 122. Spurrey (Sper- 
gula arvensis). Seeds nat- 
ural size and enlarged. 

(NOBBE.) 



family (Fig. 124). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (23); Harz (18). 

RANUNCULACEOUS SEEDS 

(^Ranunculaceis). 

This family includes a number of weeds, the seeds of which are par- 
ticularly objectionable ingredients of grain because of their poisonous 
constituents. 



BUTTERCUP FRUIT. 



153 



Nearly all the representatives of the family have flowers with several 
or many pistils ripening either into single-seeded achenes or several- 
seeded pods. 




Fig. 123. Spurrey. Cross section of seed show- 
ing e outer epidermis of spermoderm with p out- 
growths from the centers of the cells. (Col- 
lin and Perrot.) 




Fig. 124. Spurrey. Epidermis of 
spermoderm in surface view. (Col- 
lin and Perrot.) 



The brief descriptions which follow are based on Senft's valual^le 
paper, to which the reader is referred for further details. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Senft: Die Bestandtheile des Ausreuters aus der Familie der Ranunculaceen. 
Praxis. 1902, 1, 65. 



Pharm. 



BUTTERCUP FRUIT. 

Of the several species of Ranunculus infesting cultivated fields, the 
fruit of only one {R. arvensis L.) is here described, although those of 
the other species are very similar in microscopic structure. 

The achenes (Fig. 125) are 5-6 mm. long, i mm. thick, keeled, and 
have a blunt beak and tapering base. On the flattened inner side 
they are prickly. 

Fruits of other species are showm in Fig. 126. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The Pericarp consists of four layers: (i) The epicarp of yellow-brown 
cells extended into papilke; (2) parenchyma forming a single layer of 
tangentially elongated cells of a yellow-brown color; (3) crystal cells 
(100 n) with dark-brown walls; (4) sclerenchyma fibers for the most 
part longitudinally extended in the outer, transversely in the inner lavers. 



154 



IVEED SEEDS. 



Spermoderm. (i) The outer layer has detached, rounded, trans- 
versely elongated, thick-walled cells; (2) the inner layer, longitudinally 
elongated, closely united cells with porous walls. 

Perisperm. This consists of more or less quadri- 
lateral cells with thick, porous walls and granular 
contents. 

Endospenn. The cells are thick walled (up to 
9 /«) and contain aleurone grains embedded in fat. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Harz (18); Villiers 
et Collin (42). Also see Senft, loc. cit. 




ADONIS FRUIT. 



Fig. 125. Field But- 
tercup {Ranunculus 
(irvensis). Seed, nat- 
ural size and en- 

The compound fruits of Adonis aestivalis L. and 
A. Flammea L. consist of numerous one-seeded, beaked achenes. 

The. Pericarp tissues are: (i) an epicarp made up of polygonal cells 
with striated cuticle and stomata; (2) a parenchyma tissue of several 
obliterated layers containing small oxalate crystal clusters; (3) an outer 
endocarp of several layers of large, strongly thickened sclerenchyma 
cells, many of which contain crystals; and (4) an inner layer of trans- 
versely elongated fibers. 

T II III 



4 



Fig. 126. Buttercup Seeds. /, Ranunculus repens; II, R. acris; III, R. sceleraius. Nat- 
ural size and enlarged. (Nobbe.) 

Spermoderm. Of the three layers, the middle layer, with porous, 
distinctly striated, yellow walls, is alone worthy of mention. 
The Endosperm contains aleurone grains up to 14 fi long. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Harz (18); Villiers et Collin (42). Also 
see Senft, loc. cit. 






LARKSPUR SEED, LOUSE SEED. 



155 




LARKSPUR SEED. 

The characteristic tissues of the field larkspur (Delphinium Con- 
solida L.) are the outer epidermis and third 
layer of the spermoderm. 

The outer epidermal cells have strongly 
thickened outer walls with minute warts. 
Curious fan-like outgrowths of this layer 
are highly characteristic. The third layer Fi^- 127. Field Larkspur {Del- 

■ . , phinium Consolida). Seed, nat- 

IS of longltudmally elongatea, narrow, re- ural size and enlarged; also 
ticulated cells. longitudinal section showing the 

embryo. (Nobbe.) 

The macroscopic characters are shown 
in Fig. 127. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Harz(i8); Planchon et Collin (34); Villiers 
et Collin (42); Vogl (44). Also see Senft, loc. cit. 

LOUSE SEED. 

In this species {Del phinium Staphysagria L.) the brown walls of 
the epidermis of the spermoderm are strongly thickened throughout, 







\::^.!lliJ::i 




Fig. 128. Louse seed {Delphinium Staphysagria). Outer epidermis of spermoderm in 

cross section. (Moeller.) 



and are marked by beautifully distinct concentric rings. The outgrowths 
on the cuticle are here finger-shaped, up to 9 ,« broad and 30 n long (Fig. 
128). 



156 IVEED SEEDS. 



BLACK CARAWAY. 



The seeds of Nigella arvensis L. are irregularly triangular, flattened^ 
about 2 mm. long and 1.2 mm. broad. On the surface they are finely 
granular. 

The characteristic elements as seen in surface view are the lar^e 










Fig. 129. Black Caraway {Nigella arveu- Fig. 130. Black Caraway. Spiral cells of 
sis). Outer epidermis of spermoderm in spermoderm in surface view. (Moeller.) 

surface view. (Moeller.) 

fioo n broad) papilla:;-Hke, dark-brown epidermal cells (Fig. 129) and 
the 4-5 sided striated, cross-cells of the third layer (Fig. 130). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Harz (18); Planchon et Coliin (34); 
Vogl (44). x\lso see Senft, loc. cil. 



MISCELLANEOUS WEED SEEDS. 
COW-WHEAT. 

In many regions cow-wheat {Melampyrum arvense L. order Scro- 
phulariaccce) is an abundant weed, and its seed finds its way into grain. 
The brown, oval seed (Fig. 131) is somewhat smaller than wheat and 
contains a horny endosperm, in the axis of which is embedded the minute 
embryo. 



COlV-lVHE/tT. BINDIVEED. 



157 



Only traces of the spermoderm are present, the bulk of the seed con- 
sisting of thick-walled endosperm (Figs. 132 and 133). The cells in the 
outer layer are radially elongated, elsewhere isodiametric, usually about 





Fig. 131. Cow 
Wheat (Melampy- 
r u nt a r V en se). 
Seed, natural size 
and enlarged. 

(NOBBE.) 



Fig. 132. Cow Wheat. Cross 
section of spermoderm (oblit- 
erated cells) and endosperm. 
X160. (MOELLER.) 




Fig. 133. Cow Wheat. Outer 
layer of endosperm in sur- 
face view. X160. (MOEL- 

LER.) 



50 jjL in diameter. The double walls are 15/4 thick, and, excepting the 
outer and radial ^yalls of the outer layer, are pierced by distinct pores. 
Oil globules and finely granular protoplasm are the only visible con- 
tents. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 



See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (6, 23); Hanausek, T. F. (16); 
Mace (26); Moeller (29); Schimper (37); Vogl (43, 45); Wittmack (10). 
TscmRCH: Entwicklungsgeschichtliche Studien. Schw. Woch. Chem. Pharm. 1897, 
35, No. 17. 



BINDWEED. 



In some regions the wild morning glory or field bindweed {Convol- 
vulus arvensis L. order ConvolvulacecB) is a serious pest in grain fields, 
the vines twining on the grain stalks, thus checking their growth and 
the seeds finding their way into the threshed grain. 

The black seed is the shape of an orange segment, about 4 mm. 
long and 2.5 mm. broad (Fig. 134). It consists of a shell-Hke spermo- 
derm, a bulky endosperm, and an embryo wn"th curiously folded coty- 
ledons. 



158 



IVEED SEEDS. 



HISTOLOGY. 

Spermoderm. Cross-sections and surface mounts, the latter prepared 
after boiling the seed in ij per cent alkali, serve for the study of the 
seed coats. 

1. Outer Epidermis. The cells are of unequal height, the outer walls 
often being convex, forming short papillae. In surface view they are 
polygonal and show dark-brown contents. 

2. Cross Cells. Exceedingly narrow, colorless cross cells arranged 
side by side in rows and often parqueted make up a thin subepidermal 
layer. 

3. The Palisade Cells forming the third layer are about 75 /« high, 
and are of a yellow-brown color except for a light line about 15 /« from the 





Fig. 134. Bindweed {Convolvulus arven- 
sis). a fruit; b seed, natural size; c seed, 
enlarged. (Nobbe.) 



Fig. 135. Wild Carrot {Daucus Carota). a 
fruit showing inner or commissural surface, 
enlarged; h showing outer surface, enlarged; 
c fruit, natural size. (Nobbe.) 



outer end. The narrow lumen broadens somewhat near the light line. 
These cells resemble the palisade cells of cottonseed. 

4. Parenchyma Cells form the inner layers of the spermoderm. 

Endosperm. The cells have very thick, more or less mucilaginous 
walls. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The epidermal cells ^with brown contents, the narrow cross cells, and 
the paHsade cells serve for the identification of this seed in powder form. 

BIBLIOGR.\PHY. 
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Harz (18); Villiers et Collin (42). 



WILD CARROT. 

The fruit of the wild form of Daucus Carota L. (order Umbellifercs) 
is broadly ovoid, 1.5-2.5 mm. long (Fig. 135). The secondary' ribs are 



HOLLOIV SEED. 



159 



barbed with bristles over i mm. long, while the inconspicuous main 
ribs are sparingly hair}\ The bristles are made up of numerous axially 
arranged, narrow, elongated cells. Oil ducts are present only in the 
secondary ribs. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Harz (18). 

HOLLOW SEED. 

According to Vogl, Bijora radians M. B. (order UmbellijercE,) is an 
abundant weed in Austrian grain fields, particularly in the region south 
of Vienna, and the fruit frequently occurs in considerable amount in screen- 
ings. In one sample of screenings he found 4.9 per cent of this fruit. 

The pericarp lacks conspicuous ribs and has no oil ducts whatever. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Pericarp (Fig. 136) i. The Epicarp (I, Ep) is smooth, without dis- 
tinctive characters. 




Fig. 136. Hollow Seed {Bijora'radians). I pericarp in surface view showing Ep epicarp, 
p parenchyma, Q cross cells, and P reticulated cells (endocarp); // stone cells from 
sclerenchyma layer of pericarp, isolated by maceration; /// endosperm showing aleu- 
rone grains; IV aleurone grains containing calcium oxalate rosettes. (Vogl.) 

2. The Mesocarp consists of a dense sclerenchyma zone between outer 
and inner multicellular parenchyma layers (p). Many of the scleren- 



i6o 



IVEED SEEDS. 



chyma cells after maceration display characteristic side branches (//). 
Curious netted cells form the innermost layer of the mesocarp. 

3. The Endocarp consists of narrow cross cells (Q). 

The Spermoderm lacks distinctive elements. 

The Endosperm (///) contains aleurone grains with conspicuous 
rosettes of calcium oxalate (IV). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Vogl (45). 

CORNFLOWER. 

European grain fields are often infested with the plants of the corn- 
flower {Centaur ea Cyanus L. order Compositce). 

The achene is light gray, about 4 mm. long, and bears a pappus of 
tan-colored bristles, also about 4 mm. long (Fig. 137). 

HISTOLOGY. 

The Pappus bristles are made up of bundles of narrow, sclerenchyma 
fibers, some of which are prolonged into upwardly directed barbs. 
Pericarp and Spermoderm are united, forming a leathery hull. 




Fig. 137. Cornflower {Centaurea Cyanus). 
a fruit, natural size; h fruit, enlarged; c 
pappus bristle, enlarged. (Nobbe.) 




Fig. 138. Cleavers {Galium Aparine). 
Fruit, natural size and enlarged. 
(Nobbe.) 



1. Epicarp. The cells have thick, porous, sclerenchyma walls, and 
are arranged end to end in longitudinal rows. 

2. Sclerenchyma Cells, similar to those of the epicarp but of smaller 
diameter, form several layers. 



CORNFLOIVER. CLEAVERS. l6i 

3. Crystal Cells. Beautiful bar-shaped, monoclinic crystals are present 
in great numbers in an ill-delined layer on the inner surface of the scleren- 
chyma coat. After boiHng the seed with i\ per cent alkali, this together 
with the first two layers may be readily stripped off from the seed. 

4. The Palisade Cells of the fourth layer are about 75 ,« high and 
have thick brown walls. They separate from one another on maceration 
in alkali, 

5. Parenchyma. The several layers of compressed cells, on treatment 
of sections with Javelle water, expand to their normal size. Through this 
tissue passes the raphe. 

The Endosperm consists of a single layer of aleurone cells. 

Embryo. The aleurone grains are exceedingly interesting because 
of their warty outer surface. They are globular or ellipsoidal, varying 
to 18 /I in length, and inclose numerous globoids. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The elements of value in diagnosis are the upwardly barbed bristles, 
the sclerenchyma layer with crystal cells on the inner surface, the pahsade 
cells, and the warty aleurone grains of the embryo. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Harz (18); Villiers at Collin (42). 

CLEAVERS. 

A number of plants of the genus Galium (order RuhiacecB), known as 
cleavers, bed-straws, etc., are characterized by their slender square stems 
provided with numerous small prickles. The fruit of G. Aparine L. is 
rounded, 2-3 mm. in diameter, and hollow with a small hole on one side 
connecting with the inner cavity. The surface is roughened with minute 
hooked hairs (Fig. 138). The thin pericarp and spermoderm inclose a 
horny endosperm in which is embedded a crescent-shaped embryo. Other 
species of the same genus have similar fruits, although in some species 
they are of smaller size and without prickles. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Pericarp (Fig. 139). On boiling with i\ per cent alkali, the pericarp 
readily separates as a gray skin. 



l62 



M^EED SEEDS. 



1. The Epicarp is highly characteristic owing to warts {IV), the stomata, 
and the large hairs, each with a broadly conical base and a hooked apex. 

2. Mesocarp. A thin- walled tissue, for the most part of spongy 
parenchyma, forms the thin mesocarp. Fibro-vascular bundles ramify 




IV 

Fig. 139. Cleavers. I cross section of fruit. The pericarp consists of Ep epicarp, P 
mesocarp with R raphides cells, and Q cross cells or endocarp; 5 spermoderm; N 
endosperm. II surface view showing cross cells and spiral vessels. Ill sclerenchy- 
matized parenchyma from mesocarp. IV papilla from epicarp. V spermoderm in 
surface view. VI, Q cross cells in cross section; 5 isolated raphides cells. (Vogl.) 

through this tissue. Cells containing large raphides bundles occur here 
and there (5). 

3. The Endocarp Cells are thin-walled, narrow, and transversely 
elongated (77). 

Spermcderm. A single layer of large, polygonal, often elongated cells 



PL/INTyllN. 



163 



with conspicuous brown walls constitutes this coat (V). Vogl has noted 
the presence of brown starch-grains 3 /« in diameter. 

Endosperm. The exceedingly thick, horny cell-walls of this tissue are 
very striking. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The warty epicarp cells, the hooked hairs, the raphides bundles, the 
large brown cells of the spermoderm and the horny endosperm are the 
characteristic elements (Fig. 139). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (45). 

PLANTAIN. 

The minute seeds of common plantain (Planlago major L. order 
PlantaginacecE.) and the larger seeds of ribgrass or English plantain (P. 
lanceolata L.) are often present as an impurity in flaxseed and other 




Fig. 140. Plantain {Plantago major), a fruit with calyx, h fruit with cap, and c longi- 
tudinal section of fruit showing placenta, natural size, d seed from inner side and e 
seed from dorsal side, enlarged. (Nobbe.) 

economic seeds. The brown seeds resemble in form the wheat kernel, 
being elongated, convex on one side and grooved on the other (Fig. 140). 
The characteristic tissue is the thick-walled, porous endosperm, 
reminding us of the endosperm of cow-wheat {Melampyrum). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (23). 



FUNGUS IMPURITIES. 

ERGOT. 

Ergot is the resting stage (sclerolium) of Clavkeps purpurea Tulasne, 
a fungus belonging to the order Pyrenomycetes. It is formed in the 
inflorescence of rye and other grasses, entirely replacing the grain. 

Ergot is separated from rye for use as a drug in Russia and other con- 
tinental countries. If the grain is not thoroughly freed from this impurity 
it is liable to cause certain diseases, although the opinion of authorities 
differ as to the amount which can be eaten with impunity. 

The active stage (sphacelia) of the fungus makes its appearance on 
the ovary during flowering as a soft felt of threads (mycelium), bearing 
numerous brood cells (gonidia) in a slimy mass. Later the mycelium at 
the base of the sphacelia forms a compact mass which develops when 
mature into the elongated sclerotium. At its apex the sclerotium bears an 
easily detachable cap, consisting of the remnants of the sphacelia of the 
fungus and the ovary of the grass. 

The grains of ergot are 1-3 cm. long 1-6 mm. broad, more or less 
angular, longitudinally striate, slightly bowed, tapering toward the blunt 
ends. (Fig. 141.) They are purple-black on the surface, and white 
with a tinge of pink or purple within. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The structure, although quite simple, is very different from that of 
the cereals. As may be seen in cross-sections mounted in turpentine, 
the compacted hyphae form a false parenchyma, with narrow cells, rounded 
cavities and rather thick walls (Fig. 142). The variation in size of the 
cells is especially noticeable. Fat and proteid matter fill the cells; starch 
is absent. In one or more of the outer layers both the walls and the cell- 
contents are of a dark brown color, changing to bright red with acids 
and to purple with alkali. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The cells of the false parenchyma are distinguished from those of 

endosperm tissues by their smaller size and the absence of starch; from 

164 



ERGOT. SMUTS. 



165 



those of germ tissues by their thicker walls, more variable size and irregular 
arrangement. The dark brown coloring matter of the outer layers, with 



Fig. 141. Ergot {Claviceps purpurea), 
with cap. Natural size. (Vogl.) 




Fig. 142. Ergot. Cross section after 
extraction of fat. X300. (Moeller.) 



the reactions noted above, is characteristic, 
alcohol test is described on p. 53. 



Vogl's hydrochloric acid- 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Bohmer (6, 23); Fluckiger (11); 
Greenish (14); Hanausek, T. F. (16); Mace (26); Meyer (27); Moeller (29, 30, 31, 32); 
Planchon et Collin (34); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (43, 
44, 45); Wigand (46); Wittmack (10). 
Belzung: Journ. pharm. chim. 1890. 
Gruber: Die Methoden d. Nachw. v. Mutterkorn im Mehl u. Brot. Arch. f. Hyg. 

1895, 24, 228. 
Hartwich: Schweiz. Woch. Chem. Pharm. 1893. 

Lagerheim: Pavlsande af mjoldrvga i mjol. Svensk kemisk Tidsk. 1900. 
Mitlacher: Versuch einer quantitativen Bestimmung des Mutterkorns im Mehle. 

Ztschr. allg. osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1902. 
Moeller: Gutachten in der Mutterkornfrage. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1895. 
Musset: Zum Nachweis von Mutterkorn in Mehl. Pharm. Centralh. 1899. 
Spaeth: Pharm. Centralh. 1896, 17, 542. 



SMUTS. 

The smuts (UstilaginecB) are parasitic fungi living inside various 
parts of higher plants. Those which infest grain ripen their resting spores 
in the ovaries where they form a dark powdery mass replacing the starch 
of the seed. These spores are more or less globular and have a thick 
membrane or episporium which is smooth or reticulated, brown or color- 
less, according to the species (Fig. 143). 



i66 



FUNGUS IMPURITIES. 



The Stinking Smuts oj Wheat ripen their spores in the wheat kernel, 
destroying the inner tissues but not the outer hull. The damaged kernels 
are not greatly different in size from the sound ones, and consequently 
are not readily separated by screening. Flour made from this grain is 
contaminated with the spores which, if present in appreciable amount, 
injure its color and impart to it a disagreeable odor and taste. 

The common species (Tilletia Tritici (Bjerk) Wint., T. Caries Tul.) 
has reticulated, pale brown, transparent spores reaching i8 /< in diameter 






Fig. 143. Spores of Smuts, a reticulated-spored stinking smut of wheat {Tilletia Caries); 
b smooth-spored stinking smut of wheat {T. lxvis)\ c rye stalk smut (Urocystis occulta); 
d maize smut {Ustilago Maidis); e loose smut {Ustilago Carbo). (Mez.) 

(a); a less common species {T. joetens (B. & C.) Trel., T. laevis Kuhn) 
has smooth spores {h). 

Rye Smut {Tilletia Secalis Kiihn) is a rarer species, occurring chiefly 
in Europe. The reticulated spores are 20-25 n in diameter. 

Loose Smuts. Several species of loose smuts, formerly classed together 
as Ustilago Carbo Tul., attack the fruit of wheat, oats and barley. As they 
destroy, not only the starchy inner portion of the kernels, but also the hull, 
the spores (e), which vary up to 8 fi, escape during harvesting and seldom 
contaminate the grain or the flour made from the grain. The following 
species, infesting respectively wheat, oats and barley, have been described : 
U. Tritici (Pers) Jens, U. Avence (Pers) Jens, U. nuda (Jens) Kell. & Sw. 

Maize Smut {U. Zece (Bechm.) Ung., U. Maidis Lev.) develops in 
the ear of maize, forming an irregular sack filled with a dust consisting of 
dark brown spores {d), 8-14 fi in diameter, with numerous papillae on the 
surface. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
Clinton: North American Ustilagineas. Jour. Myco . 1902, S, 128. 



PART III. 

OIL SEEDS AND OIL CAKES. 



OIL SEEDS. 

All fruits and seed in which the reserve material is largely in the form 
of oil or fat properly belong under this head, although for convenience 
the cocoanut and other oleaginous nuts are described in Part V, and 
the peanut, which contains starch as well as oil, with other legumes in 
Part IV. The mustards are not only oil seeds but also spices. 

As a rule the oil is contained largely in the embryo, but in the linseed 
it is about equally divided between the endosperm and the embryo, while 
in the olive it is largely in the pericarp. In addition to oil the seeds con- 
tain large amounts of proteids in the form of aleurone grains. 

OiI=seed Products. 

The most important products of the oil seeds are the expressed oils, 
but many of the cakes or residues of the oil presses, like the by-products 
of flour mills, starch factories, breweries and distilleries, are of great 
value as cattle foods. Castor pomace is utilized as a nitrogen eous fer- 
tilizer, and ground cottonseed cake or cottonseed meal both as a cattle 
food and a fertilizer. Mustard cake is employed both as a drug and a 
condiment. 

Some seeds are decorticated before expressing the oil, others are 
pressed whole and the hulls are either separated from the cake after 
grinding, as for example in the manufacture of mustard flour, or are 
not separated at all. 

Since oil cakes and oil meals are rich in protein and also in fat, not- 
withstanding the removal of the larger part of this latter constituent, 
they are known as concentrated feeds. 

Starch being entirely absent in true oil seeds when fully ripe, its pres- 
ence in the cake indicates adulteration with starchy material or at least 
contamination with weed seeds. Peanut cake, however, being a by-product 
of a starchy legume, contains a considerable amount of starch, while on the 
other hand, maize cake, although a cereal product, is free from starch. 

The hulls separated from cottonseed, sunflower seed and some other 

169 



17© OIL SEEDS. 

seeds are utilized as adulterants of cattle foods, and mustard hulls are 
employed as adulterants of spices and prepared mustard. 

The dried residues from the manufacture of some of the essential 
oils are also non-starchy materials similar to those here considered. 

Methods of Examination. 

Preliminary Examination. Each oil-cake has cenain physical char- 
acteristics, such as color, odor, texture, deportment with water, etc., 
which can be learned only by experience. For example, maize cake 
has a characteristic taste and odor; cottonseed cake a characteristic color; 
most cruciferous products develop an odor of mustard oil on mixing 
with water; linseed cake becomes slimy by the same treatment; and so 
on. 

Foreign seeds, fragments of hulls and other constituents may often 
be found by macroscopic examination of the unground material or of 
the coarser grades obtained by sifting. These, if not identified by the 
naked eye or under the lens, are reserved for microscopic examination. 

Cold-water Test. The presence of a large excess of hulls in cotton- 
seed meal is easily disclosed by mixing 5 grams of the ground material 
with 100 cc. of cold water, and comparing the deposit of black hulls, 
which immediately settles from the yellow suspended matter, with that 
obtained by the same method from samples of known composition. 

This simple process is also useful in the examination of other oil cakes 
as well as some cereal products, and serves not only to detect hulls but 
also added mineral matter. 

Collin and PerroCs Method^ of preliminary examination is as follows: 
Boil 2 grams of the powdered material 10 minutes with 60 cc. of water 
to which are added 10-12 drops of concentrated potash solution. Allow 
to settle 7 or 8 minutes, decant and wash twice with water by decanta- 
tion. The last decantation should leave 15-20 cc. of water in the dish, 
which, given a gentle gyratory motion causes the particles of the residue 
to deposit according to their density. These particles are examined 
as to their physical properties, especially their color and hardness, and 
are afterwards prepared for microscopic examination. 

Chemical Analysis. Tests for starch or starchy adulterants are 
made by boiling a small quantity of the material with water, coohng and 
adding a few drops of potassium iodide iodine. 

* Les Residus Industriels, etc. Paris, 1904, 35. 



OIL-SEED PRODUCTS. lyi 

Quantitative determinations of starch are laborious and only neces- 
sary in exceptional cases, but determinations of protein (Nx6J), fat 
and crude fiber are easily made and are essential for the proper valuation 
of the material. The addition of starchy substances tends to diminish 
the percentage of protein and fat without greatly altering the percentao-e 
of CRide fiber, while the addition of hulls or woody adulterants tends to 
increase the percentage of fiber at the expense of both the protein and 
fat. 

Microscopic Examination. Starch grains being absent, except in 
peanut cake and in cake made from unripe or impure seeds, the micro- 
scopist must rely largely on the structure of the hulls, or in exceptional 
cases on the characters of the aleurone grains. The treatment pre- 
liminary to the microscopic examination is also very different from that 
employed for starchy products. Digestion with diastase or boiling with 
dilute acid is obviously irrational in products containing no starch, but 
on the other hand, extraction with ether or a similar solvent is often neces- 
sary owing to the presence of considerable fat, and treatment with alkali 
to remove the proteid marter is usually desirable. 

Direct Examination of the powdered material in water is useful chiefly 
in detecting foreign matter containing starch. As starch grains are 
liable to be confused with oil drops and proteid grains, addition of 
iodine tincture is advisable. 

Addition of alkali facilitates the examination of the tissue by dis- 
solving the proteid grains, saponifying or emulsifying the oil, and swell- 
ing the cell-walls. Mounting in a drop of concentrated sulphuric acid 
aids in identifying cottonseed meal, as the resin masses become bright 
red in this reagent. 

Chloral hydrate serves to detect the hulls of wild mustard by im- 
parting a beautiful cherry-red color to the contents of the palisade cells. 
These and a few other reactions are of value in diagnosis, but as a rule 
reagents serve merely to clear the tissues, thus facilitating their examina- 
tion. 

Fragments of the hulls picked out from the unground material 
are sectioned, scraped, macerated or otherwise treated and examined 
in water, dilute alkali or some other suitable medium. 

Ether Extraction preliminary to examination in water or to treatment 
by Hebebrand's method may be performed on a filter or by decantation 
in a beaker. If more complete extraction is desirable the continuous 
apparatus of Soxhlet, Tollens or Johnson may be employed. 



172 OIL SEEDS. 

Hebehrand's Method ^ for clearing sesame cake and other materials 
with delicate tissues which would be destroyed by Beneke's methods is 
as follows : 

Extract a portion of the material with ether and grind so as to pass 
a 0.5 mm. mesh. Mix 0.5 gram of the extracted and finely ground 
material with 10-15 cc. of sodium carbonate solution (7 grams of the dry 
salt in 100 cc. of water) and pass chlorine gas into the mixture, taking 
care that the solution remains alkaline. After 2-15 minutes, according 
to the material, dilute with water, allow the fragments of tissues to settle, 
decant off the liquid and wash twice by decantation. Examine the residue 
in water or some other suitable solvent. 

Chlorine gas is conveniently prepared by treating the so-called "chlo- 
ride of lime cubes" with dilute hydrochloric acid in the special form of 
generator supplied by Peters and Rost, Berlin. SufiS,cient gas for clearing 
one sample may be generated from a single cube. 

Beneke's Method- may be used for accumulating and clearing tissues 
of the pericarp and spermoderm, provided these tissues are strongly devel- 
oped. It is not suited for clearing delicate tissues. 

It is described at some length by the author, but the following direc- 
tions will be found sufficient: Heat in a porcelain dish, with constant 
stirring, about 5 grams of the material with 30 cc. of concentrated 
hydrochloric acid and 10 cc. of concentrated nitric acid until the liquid 
begins to foam. Add at once considerable cold water, and filter on a 
piece of fine mull and wash with water. 

Rinse back into the dish with 60 cc. of water, add 30 cc. of concentrated 
sodium hydrate and heat until the solution begins to boil. Dilute with 
cold water, filter and wash as before. Mount the residue and examine. 

Collin and Perrofs Method is described under " Preliminary Examina- 
tion " (p. 170). 

CRUCIFEROUS SEEDS (Cn^cz/er^). 

The flowers of cruciferous plants are very similar in all the species, 
having, as the family name suggests, four regular petals and four sepals. 

Systems of classification depend largely on the characters of the pods 
and seeds. 



' Beitrag zur mikroskopischen Untersuchung von Nahrungs- u. Futtermitteln. For- 
schungsber. f. Lebensm. 1897, 306. Landw. Vers. -Stat. 1898, 51, 74. 

^ Anleitung zur mikroskopischen Untersuchung derKraftfuttermittel. Berlin, 1886,38, 



CRUCIFEROUS SEEDS. 173 

The pods, known as siliques when long or silicles when short, are 
commonly divided into two cells by thin, longitudinal partitions, passing 
through the two parietal placentae. When ripe the outer walls of each 
pod separate from the partition as two valves, the seeds remaining with the 
partition. 

The campylotropous seeds consist entirely of spermoderm and embryo 
without endosperm, and usually have a pungent taste. 

As seen in cross section the arrangement of the cotyledons (=) with 
reference to the radicle (o) maybe accumbent (o =) incumbent (o j]) 
or conduplicate (o > > ). In some species the cotyledons are coiled or 
folded endwise, the cross section appearing thus: o || ||, o [| |1 \\ etc. 

Under a lens the seeds of some species show numerous shallow pits, 
the ridges between the pits forming delicate reticulations. 

Microscopic Characters of Cruciferous Seeds. 

The Spermoderm (Fig. 146) normally has four layers, but in many 
species the first and second layers at maturity form a structureless mem- 
brane with no evidence of cells. 

1. The Epidermal Cells {ep) when present are polygonal, and usually 
have thin walls. In certain species on adding water a mucilaginous 
substance is evident which D'Arbaumont, contrary to the formerly accepted 
view, has shown is formed from cell-contents, not from the cell-wall. 

D'Arbaumont divides the phenomena observed in numerous species on 
addition of water into four groups: 

(i) Complete diffusion of the contents. ' 

(2) Diffusion of the lateral layers, an axial cylinder remaining 
unchanged. 

(3) Simple swelling of the layers. 

(4) The mucilage, owing to the pressure developed in the cell, bursts 
through the outer wall forming a body of definite shape. 

The appearance of the mucilage after addition of water, whether in 
the cell or after escaping, is of considerable value in diagnosis. 

2. The Subepidermal Layer, or outer parenchyma layer, consists of one 
or two cell layers of thin-walled polygonal elements often of considerable 
size. In some species, notably white mustard, the cells (Fig. 144, 5^) are 
collenchym.atously thickened at the angles. 

3. The Palisade Cells (b), or beaker cells, form the most striking layer 
of the seed. The inner walls and at least the inner portions of the radial 



174 OIL SEEDS. 

walls are more or less strongly thickened, giving the cells in cross section 
a beaker-like appearance. These thickened walls are either yellow or 
brown, according to the color of the seed. 

In certain species this layer in surface view displays dark meshes 
(Fig. 149) corresponding to the reticulations of the spermoderm. This 
appearance is due to the greater height of the palisade cells (Fig. 146, se) 
in the meshes, and is valuable in diagnosis. 

As seen in surface view the cehs vary greatly in breadth (3-100 ,«) 
and have a sharply polygonal outline and more or less rounded lumen. 
Owing to their polygonal form and thick walls they present a mosaic -like 
appearance. 

4. The Pigment Cells (g) are in one or more layers, and contain in the 
case of brown seeds, a dark colored material. In surface view they lack 
characteristic features. 

Endosperm. Most authors have described the remaining layers of 
the hull as inner spermoderm; Gruinard and also Gram, however, have 
demonstrated that they belong to the endosperm. 

1. Aleurone Cells {K) similar to those found in the cereals form the outer 
portion of the endosperm. In most seeds only a single cell layer is present 
except under the micropyle where there are two or even more layers, and 
under the hilum where they are entirely absent. 

2. Obliterated Parenchyma makes up the remainder of the endosperm. 
The Embryo tissues are thin-walled and contain aleurone grains and 

fat. 

Chief Characters. 

None of the common cruciferous seeds contain starch, and all have 
a pahsade layer of beaker cells forming a brown or yellow mosaic, 
and an endosperm with a single layer of aleurone cells. 

Of diagnostic value when present are the epidermal cells with mucilagi- 
nous contents, the subepidermal layer of collench)Tna cells and the 
pigment layer. 

Analytical Key to Cruciferous Seeds. 

A. Spermoderm yellow. 

1. Epidermal cells with mucilaginous contents; subepidermal layer collen- 

chymatous White Mustard {Sinapis alba). 

2. Epidermal cells with mucilaginous contents; subepidermal layer not evi- 

dent (Eruca sativa.) 



CRUCIFEROUS SEEDS. 175 

3. Epidermal and subepidermal layers form a structureless membrane (not 

cellular) Indian Colza {Brassica campestris var. Sarson). 

Spermoderm brown. 

(a) Palisade layer with reticulations. 

* Epidermis cellular, usually with mucilaginous contents. 

4. Subepidermal cells large, not collenchymatous; palisade cells red brown, 

narrow (usually 3-10 n) Black Mustard {B. nigra). 

5. Subepidermal cells collenchymatous; palisade cells red brown 

{Sinapis dissect a). 

6. Subepidermal cells very large, collenchymatous; palisade cells red-yellow. 

Wild Radish {Raphamis Raphanislmm). 

7. Subepidermal cells indistinct or lacking; palisade cells red-brown, broader 

than in 4 Sarepta Mustard (B. Besseriana). 

8. Subepidermal layer lacking; palisade cells after treatment with acid and 

alkali, yellow-brown; reticulations very narrow. .Palai Rape {B. rugosa). 
** Epidermis not qellular. 

9. Palisade cells with lumen thicker than double walls; reticulations narrow; 

aleurone cells often in two layers. 

Brown Indian Rape (J5. Napus var. dichotoma). 

10. Palisade cells with lumen narrower than double walls; reticulations nar- 

row; aleurone cells in one layer Indian Mustard {B. juncea). 

(b) Palisade layer with ribs, not reticulations. 

11. Epidermal and subepidermal layers not cellular. 

Field Pennycress {Thlaspi arvense). 

(c) Palisade layer without distinct reticulations or ribs; epidermis cellular with 

mucilaginous contents. 

* Mucilage escapes as long tapering columns. 

12. Epidermal and palisade cells broad (up to 90 /«), walls 15-20 /(• 

False Flax {Camelina sativa). 

13. Radial walls of epidermis thick and porous; palisade cells broad with 

broad lumen {Erysimum orientate). 

** Mucilage escapes as long columns broadened at the outer ends. 

14 Pepper Grass {Lepidium campestre, L. sativum). 

*** Mucilage in axial columns seldom escaping from the cells. 

15. Palisade cells up to 60 // broad with broad lumen. 

Shepherd's Purse (Capsella Bursa- Pasioris). 

16. Palisade cells narrow, thickened only at inner ends 

(Sisymbrium officinale). 
**** Mucilage never escapes from cells. 

17. Mucilage in layers in outer portions of cells; palisade cells with broad lumen, 

each containing a single crystal, (rarely a cluster) . . (Barbarea vulgaris). 

18. Mucilage shows honeycomb structure; spermoderm blood-red on heating 

with chloral Charlock (B. Sinapistrum). 



176 OIL SEEDS. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671 ■674- Bohmer (6, 23); Collin et Perrot (9). 
Abraham: Bau und Entwicklung der Wandverdickungen in den Samenoberhaut- 

zellen einiger Kruziferen. Jahrb. f. wissensch. Bot. 1885, 14, 559. 
d'Arbaumont: Note sur les teguments seminaux de quelques Cruciferes. Bot. Jahresb. 

1890, 18, I Abt., 663. Journ. de m'crographie. 1891, 15, 212. Bull. Soc. Bot. de 

France. 1891, 38, 67. 
Burchard: Uefeer den Bau der Samenschale einiger Brassica- und Sinapis-Arten. Jour. 

f. Landw. 1894, 42, 125. 1896, 44, 337. 
Claes et Thyes: Morphologie comparee des testes des Brassica: oleracea, napus, rapa 

et nigra et des Sinapis: alba et arvensis. Bull, de I'agric. 1891, 7, 253. 
Gram: Ueber Rapskuchen und deren Verunreinigung. Landw. Vers. -Stat. 1898, 50, 

449. 
Guignard : Recherches sur le developpement de la graine et en particulier du tegument 

seminal. Jour. Bot. 1893, 7. 
V. Hohnel: Bau der Samenschale der vier cultivirten Brassicaarten; in Haberlandt. 

Wissensch. -prakt. Untersuchungen auf dem Gebiet des Pflanzenbaues. 1875, 

1, 171. 
Kinzel: Ueber die Samen einiger Brassica- und Sinapis-Arten, mit besonderer Beriick- 

sichtigung der ostindischen. Landw. Vers. -Stat. 1899, 52, 169. 
KoBUS: Kraftfutter und seiner Verfalschung. Landw. Jahrb. 1884, 13, 813. 
Pammel: On the Seeds and Spermoderm of some Cruciferae. Amer. Monthly Mcr. 

Jour. 1897, I. 
Pieters and Charles : The Seed Coats of Certain Species of the Genus Brassica. U. S. 

Dep. Agr., Div. Bot. Bull. 29, 1901. 
Prain: a Note on the Mustards cultivated m Bengal. Agricultural Ledger 1898, No. i. 
Schroder: Untersuchung des Samens der Brassica -Arten und Varietaten. Landw. 

Vers.-Stat. 1871, 14, 179. 
Sempolowski: Ueber den Bau der Schale landwirthschaftlich wichtiger Samen. 

Landw. Jahrb. 1874, 3, 823. 
Tschirch: Entwicklungsgeschichtliche Studien. Schw. Woch. Chem. Pharm. 1897, 35, 

No. 17. 
Vuillemin: Beitrage z. Kenntnis der Senfsamen. Diss. Zurich, 1904. 
Wolff: Zur Kentniss der Senfsorten des Handels. Pharm. Ztg. 1893, 38, 761. 



WHITE MUSTARD. 

Yellow or white mustard {Sinapis alba L.), a native of Europe, is 
grown for its seed in various parts of Europe and America, particularly 
in England, Holland, Germany, and California. 

The nearly globular seeds are 2-3 mm. in diameter and are characterized 
by their buff color. Examined under a lens they have a finely granular 
but not reticulated surface. Like all the mustards they are campylotro- 



IVHITE MUSTARD. I77 

pons. Cross sections slightly magnified show the embryo consisting of 
the radicle and two large conduplicate cotyledons. 

In addition to sinapin sulphocyanide and the enzyme, myrosin, both 
of which are found also in black mustard, white mustard contains a 
glucoside, sinalbin, which, in the presence of water, is split up by myrosin 
into sinapin hydrosulphate, dextrose, and sinalbin sulphocyanide, the 
latter being a non-volatile principle with a biting taste. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Cross sections are prepared after embedding the dry seed in hard 
paraffine. For the study of the epidermis these are mounted in alcohol, 
and water is cautiously drawn under the cover-glass during observation. 
The same sections, after treatment with alkali, serve for the study of the 
other layers of the spermoderm. Sections mounted in turpentine or 
strong glycerine are adapted for studying the aleurone grains of the 
endosperm and embryo. Surface preparations of the spermoderm and 
endosperm are obtained by heating with dilute alkali and scraping with 
a scalpel. 

Spermoderm (Figs. 144 and 145). i. The Epidermis (ep) consists 
of polygonal, isodiametric mucilage cells ranging up to 100 // in diameter. 




Fig. 144. White Mustard {Sinapis alba). Cross section of seed. Spermoderm consists 
of ep epidermis, se coUenchyma, b palisade cells, and p parenchyma; endosperm con- 
sists of P aleurone cells and i compressed cells. (Moeller.) 

Cautious treatment of alcohol mounts with water displays the mucilaginous 
substance deposited in layers with a distinct cylindrical cavity in the axis 
of each cell. In surface view, the primary walls appear indistinctly 
beaded and the mucilage layers show concentric rings and often radial 
clefts. 



178 



OIL SEEDS. 



2. Collenchyma (se). Characteristic of white mustard are the sub- 
epidermal cells with collenchymatously thickened angles. These are of 
about the size of the epidermal cells, and are usually in two layers. 

3. Palisade Cells (b). Radially elongated cells thickened in the inner 
halves form the most conspicuous layer of the seed, the thickened walls 
forming a kind of cup, hence the name "beaker cells." Of great diagnostic 
importance are the colorless, thickened walls, which in most economic 
cruciferous seeds are brown. As these cells are of nearly uniform height, 
pronounced reticulations are not evident on the seed. In surface view 
the cells are sharply polygonal, varying up to 15 // in diameter. 




Fig. 145. White Mustard. Elements of seed in surface view, ep epidermis, se collen- 
chyma, b palisade cells, and p parenchyma, of spermoderm; P aleurone cells of endo- 
sperm; C cotyledon tissue. (Moeller.) 



4. Inner Layers (p). Two or more layers of thin- walled isodiaraetric 
or elongated cells complete the spermoderm. These cells, unlike the 
corresponding layer of many cruciferous seeds, do not contain a pigment. 

Endosperm (Figs. 144 and 145). i. Aleurone Cells (P). These cells 
resemble closely the aleurone cells of cereals. They are 20-40 ,u in 
diameter, have thick, colorelss walls, and contain fat globules and 
polygonal or rounded aleurone grains 1-4 /< in diameter. 

2. Obliterated Parenchyma (/). The remainder of the endosperm con- 
sists of compressed cells without evident cellular structure. 

Embryo (Fig. 145, C). Cross sections show that not only the cells 
on the inner sides of the cotyledons (the upper sides after sprouting) are 
typical palisade cells, but all the mesocarp cells are more or less elongated. 
These cells in the mature seeds contain fat and aleurone grains, never 
starch. The aleurone grains are either isodiametric or oblong. In the 



IVHITE MUSTARD. 179 

outer epidermis the isodiametric grains are about 3 // in diameter, in 
the inner layers 6-10 /«. The oblong grains are about the same width 
as those of isodiametric form, but are often twice or three times as long. 
xA.s the cells are but little broader than the grains, each usually contains 
but a single row of grains, which are often so crowded that the sides in 
contact are more or less flattened. Each grain contains numerous minute 
globoids. 

As was first noted by Gruinard, occasional cells of both the cotyledons 
and radicle contain grains without globoids, which, in sections previ- 
ously extracted with ether, are colored bright crimson-red on gently 
heating with Millon's reagent and golden-yellow on treatment in the 
cold with iodine. These cells are believed by both Gruinard and Gram to 
be the seat of the myrosin, and are designated " myrosin-cells. " 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The color of white mustard seed serves to distinguish it from all 
black or brown cruciferous seeds both in a macroscopic and microscopic 
way. Seeds of white Indian rape {B. campestris L. var. S arson Prain) 
sometimes used as an adulterant, although of the same color as white 
mustard, are distinguished macroscopically by the more pronounced 
ridge over the radicle, and microscopically by the homogenous epidermis, 
the absence of a coUenchymatous subepidermal layer and the large size of 
the palisade cells. 

White Mustard Flour is prepared either from the whole seeds, or 
more commonly from the cake remaining after expressing the oil. Al- 
though the hulls are largely removed, fragments are always present in 
small amount and are distinguished from the brown hulls of black 
mustard and other related seeds by their yellow color. The bulk of 
the organized material consists of proteid and fat. Examined in tur- 
pentine, or after extraction of the fat, in iodine tincture, the aleurone 
grains are clearly differentiated. White and black mustard flour are 
usually blended, as noted under black mustard. 

Prepared Mustard. See Black Mustard (p. 183). 

White Mustard Hulls, separated in the manufacture of mustard 
flour, serve as an adulterant for prepared mustard and various spices. 

The elements of the hulls of chief value in diagnosis are the colorless, 
distinctly cellular epidermal layer (Fig. 145, ep) with mucilaginous con- 
tents, the coUenchymatous subepidermal layer {se) and the yellow palisade 
cells (h) without evident reticulation. 



OIL SEEDS. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 



See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Blyth (5); Bohmer (10); Fliick- 
iger (11); Greenish (14); Hanausek T. F. (16, 48); Harz (18); Hassall (19); Leach 
(25); Mace (26); Meyer, A. (10, 27, 28); Moeller (29, 30, 31, 32); Planchon et Collin 
(34); Schimper (37); Tichimirow (38); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin 
(42); Vogl (43,45)- 

Also see Bibliography, of Cruciferae, p. 176. 
Harz: Ueber eine neue Verfiilschung des weissen Senfes. Bot. Centralb. 1887,8,249. 
Steffeck: Ein neues Falschungsmittel des weissen Senfes {Sinafis alba). I^andw. 
Vers.-Stat. 1887, 33, 411. 



BLACK MUSTARD. 

Brown or black mustard {Brassica nigra (L.) Koch) is cultivated 
in many parts of Europe, Asia, and America. The globular, campy lotro- 
pous seeds are 1-1.5 mm. in diameter and vary in color from light brown 
to nearly black. Under a lens they are beautifully reticulated. The 
husk or hull of the seed consisting of the spermoderm and the thin endo- 
sperm, envelops the embryo with its conduplicate cotyledons. 

The sharp taste of black mustard is due chiefly to allyl sulphocyanide, 
or volatile mustard oil. This does not, however, exist ready formed in 
the seed; but is developed by the action of an enzyme, myrosin, on a 
glucoside, sinigrin (potassium myronate), in the presence of water. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Cross-sections and surface mounts are prepared as described under 
white mustard. 

Spermoderm (Figs. 146,147 and 14S). i. The Mucilage Cells (ep) of 
the epidermis are polygonal in form and of large size (50-100 //). If 
sections are first mounted in alcohol, and water is carefully drawn under 
the cover-glass, the mucilaginous substance is seen to be deposited in layers. 
Gentle warming with alkali removes this substance, and also aids in 
clearing the remaining layers. 

2. Subepidermal Cells (se). Beneath the epidermis are thin-walled 
cells even larger than those of the epidermis, the radial walls of which 
correspond with the reticulations of the seed and the highest cells of 
the next layer. * 

3. Palisade Cells (b). Cross sections show that the palisade or 
beaker cells are of unequal height, causing the reticulated appearance 



BLACK MUSTARD. 



I«l 



of the seed and the conspicuous, dark meshes seen in surface view 
(Fig. 149). Focusing on the extreme outer end of the highest cells, 




Fig. 146. Black IVIustard {Bnissica nigra). Cross section of seed. Spermoderm consists 
of ep outer epidermis, se giant cells or subepidermal layer, b palisade cells and g pig- 
ment cells; endosperm consists of K aleurone cells and o compressed cells; c cotyledon. 

(MOELLER.) 

the thin walls of these cells form chains following the contour of 
the meshes. Sometimes a transparent skin, consisting of the epidermis 
and the outer thin-walled portion of the pahsade cells, breaks away 
from the remainder of the spermoderm, presenting the appearance shown 




Fig. 147. Black Mustard. Surface view of ep epidermis, se giant cells and b outer portion 
of palisade layer. X160. (Moeller.) 

in Fig. 147. As seen in surface view, the cells are isodiametric, 4-10 p. 
in diameter, or elongated, reaching a maximum length of 20 /«. 



182 



OIL SEEDS. 



4. Pigment Cells (g). One, sometimes two, layers of cells with 
brown contents form the inner coat of the spermoderm. In surface 
view the cells are either isodiametric or somewhat elongated, often reach- 
ing a length of 75 /i. Ferric chloride colors the cell-contents blue. The 
color of the seed is due partly to this layer and partly to the palisade 
layer. 

The Endosperm (K, 0) and Embryo (C) are practically the same 
as described under white mustard. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Black Mustard Seed is distinguished from that of white mustard by its 
darker color, from Sarepta mustard by its smaller size, and from rape 
by its smaller size and distinctly reticulated surface. Charlock {B. 
Sinapistrum Boiss.), a common weed, especially in the grain fields of 
North and South Dakota, is often substituted for black mustard. 




'-O/- 



Fig. 148. Black Mustard. Surface view 
of p inner portion of palisade layer, g 
pigment cells, K aleurone cells, and c 
cotyledon tissues. Xi6o. (Moeller.) 




Fig. 149. Black Mustard. Palisade cells 
in surface view. (Moeller.) 



Although of about the same size, the seed is not reticulated, and is usually 
of a darker color. 

The unequal height of the palisade cells (Fig. 149), the highest corre- 
sponding to the reticulations of the seed and the outline of the subepi- 
dermal cells, and their small size, are especially characteristic of black 
mustard. 

Black Mustard Flour, like that made from white mustard, is usually 
prepared from the cake, with the removal of the hulls. It is a common 
practice to blend the flour of both black and white mustard, the excess 
of myrosin in the latter serving to convert the last traces of potassium 



SAREPTA MUSTARD. 183 

myronate of the former into allyl sulphocyanide. The flour of black 
mustard consists in large part of embryo substance, with occasional frag- 
ments of the hulls (spermoderm). The aleurone grains may be examined 
in oil of turpentine, or, after the removal of the fat, in strong glycerine. 
Fragments of the spermoderm, owing to their darker color, cannot be 
confounded with those of white mustard. The palisade cells (Fig. 149) 
are smaller than those of Sarepta mustard, rape, charlock, and many 
cruciferous seeds, and the thin-walled outer portion of the highest of these 
cells forms a characteristic network of chain-Hke meshes (Fig. 147, se). 
Charlock is detected by the cherry-red color imparted to fragments of 
the hulls by treatment with chloral hydrate (p. 185). 

The common adulterants of mustard flour are wheat flour and other 
cereal products, gypsum and other mineral substances, turmeric and 
coal-tar dyes. Since mustard contains no starch, farinaceous adulterants 
are especially easy of detection. Turmeric is identified by the bright 
yellow particles which change to reddish-brown on treatment with alkali. 

Prepared Mustard. Mustard paste, also known as German or French 
mustard, is a mixture of flour from one or more kinds of mustard with 
spices, salt and vinegar. It is often adulterated with starchy matter, 
mustard hulls, dyes and preservatives. 

Black Mustard Hulls, obtained as a by-product in the manufacture of 
the flour, are used not only as adulterants of mustard paste, but of pepper 
and other spices. 

The palisade cells are the most striking elements. The inner thick- 
walled portion of the layer forms a brown mosaic (Fig. 149) with darker 
reticulations, while the outer thin-walled portion displays a dehcate 
network (Fig. 147). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See Bibliography of White Mustard, p. 180. 

SAREPTA MUSTARD. 

In Russia the so-called Sarepta mustard {B. Besseriana Andr.) is grown 
in considerable quantities. Formerly this species and Indian mustard 
(asi-rai) were both known as B. juncea Hook. f. et Thoms., but Train has 
shown that these two plants are distinct, and has reserved the specific 
name juncea for the Indian species. 

The seed resembles black mustard except that it is somewhat larger 
(1-1.8 mm.). Distinct reticulations are clearly seen under a lens. 



1 84 OIL SEEDS. 

In microscopic structure also, the seed agrees in raost points with 
black mustard; the palisade cells, however, are somewhat wider (often 
triangular) and the subepidermal layer is much less distinct, often being 
entirely obliterated. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See Bibliography of Cruciferse, p. 176: B5hmer; Kinzel. 
TiCHOMiROw: Die Struktur der Samenschale von Brassica juncea Hook. Pharm. 
Centralh. 1900, 41, 510. 



CHARLOCK. 

Grain fields, both of the Old and New World, are often infested by 
charlock {Brassica Sinapistruni Boiss., Sinapis arvensis L.), a crucif- 
erous plant with bright yellow flowers. Charlock is especially abundant 
in the wheat fields of North and South Dakota, Minnesota, and adjoining 
states, the seeds being almost always present in screenings from this region. 
A product known in the trade as Dakota mustard consists largely of the 
seeds of this plant separated from screenings. 

The deep brown, nearly black, seeds of charlock arc 1-1.5 mm. in 
diameter. They have a dull surface, but do not appear reticulated, even 
under a lens. 

HISTOLOGY. 

This seed differs from other cruciferous seeds in the structure of the 
mucilaginous substance of the epidermis, and the nature of the contents 
of the palisade cells. 

Spermoderm. i. The Epidermal Cells arc 40-75 // in diameter. 
Cross sections mounted in alcohol and treated cautiously with water dis- 
play well-defined radial walls and a radially striated mucilaginous deposit. 
This latter, in surface view, has a delicately reticulated structure with a 
central cavity; the reticulations are much the same in size as those formed 
by the outer radial walls of the palisade cells, but are not so distinct, and 
disappear entirely on adding sufficient water. 

Harz first called attention to this structure, and Gram shows it clearly 
in his figures. 

2. Subepidermal Layer. According to these last named authors, this 
coat consists of two compressed layers, but scarcely any evidence of cellular 
structure is apparent in the mature seed. 

3. Palisade Cells. Seen from without, this layer differs from the pali- 



COMMON R/IPE. 185 

sade cells of other crucifers in that the thickened radial walls are 
hidden from view by the dark brown contents which fills the cell. 
Waage first noted that the hulls of charlock assume a blood-red color 
on treatment with chloral hydrate. This characteristic reaction, due to 
the contents of the palisade cells, is hastened by heating. 

Cross sections show that the cells are uniform in height, the radial 
walls being thickened for only three-fourths of their length. Heating 
with chloral hydrate causes the outer thin-walled portion to assume its 
normal shape, and colors the material contained in both the inner and outer 
portions of the cells a beautiful blood-red hue, contrasting strikingly with 
the yellow-brown color of the sclerenchyma walls and the pigment layer. 

4. Pigment Layer. A single row of pigment cells is present. Although 
the contents are yellowish-brown, the dark color of the seed is due solely 
to the material in the palisade cells. 

Endosperm and Embryo are much the same as in black mustard. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The dark, nearly black color of the seeds and the absence of reticula- 
tions on the surface distinguish charlock from black mustard; the smaller 
size of the seeds distinguishes it from rape. The delicately reticulated 
appearance of the mucilaginous substance in the epidermis is charac- 
teristic, but not always clearly evident. Especially striking are the dark 
contents of the palisade cells, which become blood-red on heating with 
chloral hydrate. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See Bibliography of Cruciferas, p. 176: Bohmer; Burchard; Collin et Perrot; Gram; 
Pieters and Charles. 

COMMON RAPE. 

Of the cruciferous seeds utilized for oil and cattle food, not for con- 
diments, common rape, also known as colza, (Brassica Napus L.) is 
the best known in Europe. Before the advent of petroleum and coal 
gas, rape oil was burned for illuminating purposes; but at the present 
time it is used chiefly as a lubricant and for making soap. As the cake 
yields but a small amount of volatile mustard oil, it is well adapted for 
feeding animals. 

Rape is grown chiefly in Germany, Russia, and Austria-Hungary, 



1 86 OIL SEEDS. 

to a limited extent in France and Belgium, but seldom in America. There 
are summer and winter varieties. 

The seed is globular, 1.5-2.5 mm. in diameter and is of a dark brown, 
almost black color. On the surface it is dull but never reticulated, even 
under a lens, a striking distinction from the seeds of black mustard. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Rape corresponds in general structure to black mustard, but the 
Epidermis and the Subepidermal Layer of the ripe seed form an indis- 
tinct coat with little or no evidence of cellular structure. 

The Palisade Cells are of nearly uniform height, hence the absence 
of reticulation such as occur on the seeds of black and Sarepta mustard. 
Another striking distinction from the mustards lies in the larger size 
of the palisade cells, which, as seen in surface view, have an average 
diameter of 20 /x and often reach 30 /«. 

Harz states that the diameter of the lumen of each cell is about as 
great as the breadth of the double walls, whereas in German rape the 
lumen is usually narrower. Hanausek and Gram confirm this distinc- 
tion, but Collin and Perrot state that the lumen in German rape is 
the larger. Pieters and Charles place chief dependence on the more 
regular height of the palisade cells which varies not more than 3 //, while 
in German rape it varies from 5-7 /i. 

The faintly reticulated appearance of the spermoderm of German 
rape which Collin and Perrot regard as the chief means of distinction, 
is explained by the variation in the height of the palisade cells. 

The remaining coats of the spermoderm, also the endosperm and 
embr}^o agree in structure with the corresponding coats of black mustard, 
though myrosin cells are less numerous in the embryo. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The characters of chief use in diagnosis are the large size of the pali- 
sade cells (maximum diameter 30 /i), their uniform height, and the con- 
sequent absence of reticulations. Epidermal cells are seldom distin- 
guishable. Among the foreign seeds of rape cake are false flax {Came- 
lina saliva), treacle mustard {Erysimum orientale), wild radish {Raphanus 
Raphanislrum), charlock (Sitiapis arvensis), hedge mustard (Slsym- 
hriiim officinale and 5. Sophia), penny-cress {Thlaspi arvense), shepherd's 
purse {Capsella Bursa- Pastoris), peppergrass (Lepidium cajnpestre), and 
other cruciferous seeds. 



GERMAN RAPE. INDIAN COLZA. 187 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Beneke (2); Bohmer (6, 10, 23); Collin 
et Perrot (9); Hanausek, T. F. (17, 48); Harz (18); Hassall (19); Moeller (29). 

Also see Bibliography of Cruciferaj, p. 176: Burchard; Claes et Thyes; Gram; 
Kobus; Pieters and Charles; Schroder; Sempolowski; etc. 



GERMAN RAPE. 

The varieties of German rape (Brassica Rapa L.), known in Germany 
as Rilbsen, are put to the same uses as common rape. 

The differences in microscopic structure of the two species are noted 
under common rape. 

INDIAN COLZA. 

Sarson, or Indian colza (Brassica campestris L. var. Sarson Prain, 
Sinapis glauca Roxb.), has both white and brown seeded varieties, 
although the latter are rare. The seeds have been introduced into Europe 
as adulterants of white mustard, which they closely resemble. Kinzel 
believes that the " Guzerat Raps " of Wittmark belongs under this variety, 
and it is probable that the same is true of the yellow Indian rape described 
by Steffeck and the false white mustard to which Harz gave the name 
B. Iberijolia. The seed is without reticulations, and in general appear- 
ance closely resembles white mustard. 

^ Unhke white mustard, the epidermis forms a homogeneous layer 
without evident division into cells, and the subepidermal layer is en- 
tirely lacking. In some, if not all varieties, the palisade cells are broader 
than in white mustard, being about the same size as in common rape. 

The cake from this and the three following oil seeds is imported into 
Europe from India. 

According to Kinzel, the chief impurity is the black triangular seeds 
of Asphodelus tennijolius, which resemble the fruits of black bindweed 
{Polygonum Convolvulus), except that they are transversely wrinkled. 
The epidermis obtained by scraping the opaque spermoderm is char- 
acterized by the thin lamelte, which appear like 4-6 concentric circles. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See Bibliography of Cruciferas, p. 176: Kinzel. 



1 88 OIL SEEDS. 



BROWN INDIAN RAPE. 

According to Prain, tori or brown Indian rape is Brassica Napus 
L. var. dichotoma Prain. 

It is grown both as an oil seed and as a vegetable. 

Kinzel states that the epidermis in cross section does not appear 
cellular, and that the aleurone ceils are often in two layers. He further 
notes that the highest palisade cells form conspicuous but very narrow 
reticulations, and that the lumens of the palisade cells are as broad as 
those of European rape. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See Bibliography of Cruciferae, p. 176: Kinzel. 

INDIAN MUSTARD. 

The Indian plant asi-rai, according to Prain and Kinzel, is Brassica 
juncea Hook. f. et Thorns. It yields a brown seed much like that of 
black mustard, although somewhat larger. The meshes on the surface 
are distinctly seen with the aid of a lens. 

Unhke Sarepta mustard, the epidermis does not have an evident 
cellular structure. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See Bibliography of CruciferEe, p. 176: Kinzel. 

PALAI RAPE. 

The seeds of the plant known in India as palai, palangi or pahari rai, 
etc. {Brassica rugosa Prain) are brown and finely reticulated. 

According to Kinzel, this species is distinguished from all other 
Indian rapes by the cellular strcuture of the epidermis. Treated with 
sulphuric acid and alkali, the palisade cells are of a more yellow-brown 
color than in other varieties. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See Bibliography of Cruciferae, p. 176: Kinzel. 



DISSECTED MUSTARD. ERUCA. FALSE FLAX. 189 

DISSECTED MUSTARD. 

Kinzel states that the seeds of Sinapls dissecta Lagasca {Brassica 
dissecta Boiss.) frequently occur in Russian linseed and rape seed, as 
well as in the cake made from these seeds, 

Burchard finds that the histological structure is very similar to that 
of white mustard, the chief differences being that the pahsade and pig- 
ment layers contain a brown pigment, and the palisade layer displays 
narrow reticulations, due to the unequal height of the cells. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See Bibliography of Cruciferae, p. 176: Bohmer; Burchard; Gram; Kinzel. 



ERUCA. 

This plant {Eruca sativa Lam.) is a common weed in Southern Europe 
and India. The seed;- are usually yellow, but occasionally are red- 
yellow or mottled with green-brown spots. The spermoderm is smooth. 
Gram notes the following points with regard to the histological structure : 
The epidermal cells contain mucilaginous substance in layers with axial 
columns. The double contour of the walls as seen in surface view is 
due to a thickening of the outer walls at the edges of the cells. No sub- 
epidermal layer is evident. The palisade layer has thickened radial 
walls only in its inner half, where the double walls are about the thick- 
ness of the lumen. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See Bibliography of Crucifera;, p. 176: Bohmer; Collin at Perrot; Gram. 



FALSE FLAX. 

In Gemiany, Holland, and some other countries, false flax (Camelina 
sativa L.) is sparingly grown for its seed, which yields oil and cake. It 
also occurs as a weed in flax fields and the seed as an impurity of Un- 
seed and rape seed. 

The brown seed (Fig. 150) is 1.5 mm. long and about half as broad, 
its surface being finely granulated but not reticulated. A pronounced 
longitudinal ridge marks the position of the radicle. 



igo 



OIL SEEDS. 



HISTOLOGY. 

The Spermoderm (Fig. 151) consists of epidermis, palisade cells, 
and an inner layer corresponding to the pigment layer of the mustards 

and rapes. There is no evidence of a sub- 
epidermal layer in the ripe seed. 

I. The Epidermal Cells are on the average 
50 ;/ broad, but often reach 100 //. They 
are characterized by the presence in each 
cell of an axial column of mucilaginous sub- 
stance which, on the addition of water, bursts 
through the outer wall in the form of a long 
tapering cylinder. 
2. The Palisade Cells are readily seen through the transparent epi- 
dermis. Their average breadth is 45 /t, their maximum 90 //. The 
double radial walls are 15-20 p. thick, but only about 15 // high. 




150. False Flax {Came- 
lina sativa). Seeds, natural 
size and enlarged. (Nobbe.) 




Fig. 151. False Flax. Outer epidermis and palisade cells, in surface view. (MOELLER.) 

3. The Inner Layers of the spermoderm, corresponding to the pig- 
ment cells of allied seeds, consist of compressed cells, which are clearly 
evident in cross section only after treatment with chloral hydrate. 

The Endosperm and Embryo are practically the same as in the mus- 
tards, except that the aleurone grains of the embr}^o seldom exceed 5 [x. 



HEDGE MUSTARD. SHEPHERD'S PURSE. 191 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Seeds and cake of false flax are identified by the long tapering 
mucilage column which bursts through the outer epiderims on the addi- 
tion of water, also by the broad, low pahsade cells (Fig. 151). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Benecke (2); Bohmer (6, 10, 23); Collin 
et Perrot (9); Hanausek, T. F. (17, 48); Harz (18). 

Also see Bibliography of Cruciferae, p. 176: Gram; Kobus; Sempolowski. 
Nevinxy: Die Samen von Camelina saliva. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. u. Hyg. 1887, 1, 85. 
Van Pesch: Leindotter-Kuchen. Landw. Vers.-Stat. 1892, 41, 94. 

HEDGE nUSTARD. 

Sisymbrium officinale Scop., S. Sophia L., and other species of this 
genus, known as hedge mustard and by other names, are common weeds 
in both Europe and America. 

The brown seeds are minute and more or less irregular in shape. 

Gram notes that the epidermis in S. officinale contains a mucilaginous 
substance in layers, with an axial column in each cell which does not 
readily escape on addition of water, also that the palisade cells are thick- 
ened only at the very inner ends. 

According to the same author the seeds of S. Sophia are very similar 
to those of shepherd's purse, but the palisade cells are not so broad. 

BIBLIOGRAPPIY. 
See Bibliography of Crucifera;, p. 176: B5hmer; Gram. 

SHEPHERD'S PURSE. 

Shepherd's purse (Capsella Bursa-Pastoris Moench) has a seed of 
much the same shape and color as false flax, but of about half the dimen- 
sions. 

The two seeds are also similar in structure, but in shepherd's purse 
the mucilage columns seldom burst out of the epidermis, and the palisade 
cells are not so broad, the average diameter being 30 /«, the maximum 
60 /(. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (6, 10, 23); also of Cruciferae* 
p. 176: Gram. 



192 OIL SEEDS. 

WILD PEPPERQRASS. 

Several species of Lepidium, notably L. campestre Br. and L. sativum 
L., are common weeds. The small seeds are brown in color and more 
or less flattened. 

In microscopic structure, the species named are characterized by 
the mucilage column, whioh, especially after it has burst out of the cell, 
is broadened at the end. The palisade cells of L. campestre are unusually 
high. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See Bibliography of Cruciferas, p. 176: Bohmer; Gram. 

FIELD PENNYCRES5. 

According to Bohmer and Gram, the seeds of this common weed 
(Thlaspi arvense L.) frequently occur in linseed 
and rape cake (Fig. 152). 

The epidermis and parenchymatous second 
layer form a membrane of obliterated cells over 
the palisade layer. In cross section the palisade 
J a cells are of unequal height and have strongly 

Fig. 152. Field Penny- thickened inner and side walls. Their appearance 

cress (Thlaspi arvense). . j. . • 1 • 1 1 i . • .• 

a and b seed enlarged; ^ surface View IS highly characteristic, owing to 
c seed natural size, the arrangement of the high cells in longitudinal 

(NOBBE.^ . ^. 1, , M r 11 1 

rows forming parallel ribs of a darker color than 
the intervening channels. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See Bibliography of Cruciferae, p. 176: Bohmer; Gram. 

TREACLE nUSTARD. 

Seeds of this weed {Erysimum orientale R. Br.) occur in rape seed 
from both Europe and India. They are dull brown, and have a nearly 
smooth spermoderm. 

Gram's figures show the following details: 

The epidermal cells contain mucilage which escapes from each as 
a long conical body. The thickened radial walls are punctured with 
radially elongated pores, and as a consequence appear toothed in surface 





IVILD RADISH. IVINTER CRESS. 1 93 

view, and scalariform in section. The palisade cells have broad lumens 
and are seldom thickened except at the inner ends. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY . 

See Bibliography of Crucifers, p. 176: Bohmer; Gram. 

WILD RADISH. 

Gram finds seeds of the wild radish {Raphanus Raphanistrum L.) 
in small amounts in European rape cake. The seeds are globular, 
much larger than those of rape, from which they are further distinguished 
by their red-yellow color. The epidermal and subepidermal cells are 
broad, and the latter have collenchymatously thickened angles. The 
palisade cells are rather low, and of unequal height. In surface view 
they display moderately distinct reticulations. The lumen is usually 
thicker than the walls. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See Bibliography of Cruciferae, p. 176: Gram. 

WINTER CRESS. 

The brown-gray, smooth seeds of Barharea vulgaris R. Br., are occa- 
sionally present in rape seed. 

The mucilage is situated in the outer portion of each epidermal cell, 
extending inward at the sides. The radial walls are often thickened. 
In some seeds the subepidermal coat is not evident, in others it consists 
of one, or seldom two, layers. 

Characteristic of the palisade cells are their large size, large lumen, 
and the single crystal, less often the crystal cluster, present in each. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See Bibliography of Cruciferae, p. 176. Gram. 



COMPOSITE OIL FRUITS {^Co^npositcs). 

The fruits (achencs) of the sunflower, the tarweed (madia), and the 
niger plant are of local importance. They are characterized by the 
leathery pericarp, with strongly developed bast-fiber bundles, also bv 
the black pigment plates which cover these bundles. The species are 
easily distinguished by certain layers of the pericarp and spermoderm 
described under each. 



194 



OIL SEEDS. 



SUNFLOWER. 



Although a native of tropical America, the sunflower (Helianthus 
annuus L.) is grown for its oleaginous seed chiefly in Europe and Asia. 
In Russia, Hungary, Italy, and India, sunflower oil is used both as a 
human food and in the arts, and the cake is fed to farm animals. The 
sunflower is cultivated in other countries chiefly for bird seed or as an 
ornamental plant. 

The obovoid achenes are more or less four-sided and flattened. Al- 
though variable in size, they are seldom less than lo mm. long. In 
some varieties the pericarp is nearly black, in others, striped with black 
and white. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The Pericarp (Fig. 153) is clry and brittle, and may be readily 
separated from the seed. 

h 







m 

Fig. 153. Sunflower {Helianthus annuus). Cross section of outer layers of pericarp. 
epicarp with h hairs; K hypoderm; H fiber bundles separated by m parenchyma; 
p parenchyma with g fibro-vascular bundle. Xi6o. (Moeller.) 

I. The Epicarp Cells (Fig. 153, 0; Fig. 154) are large, usually elonga- 
ted, with rather thick, porous walls. Stomata are absent. Dark-colored 



SUNFLOIVER. 



195 



contents are present throughout in black seeds, but only in some of the 
cells of striped seeds. Characteristic of this fruit are the broad, thin- 
walled hairs {h), usually in pairs, most of which, however, are broken off 
in cleaning the seed. As a rule, the members of each pair are united for 
nearly their entire length. T. F. Hanausek has found that these hairs 
are attached at their bases to a specially differentiated cell of the epi- 





FiG. 154. Sunllower. Epicarp with h 
twin hairs, in surface view. (Moel- 

LER.) 



Fig. 155. Sunflower. Fibers of peri- 
carp in surface view, X160. (Moel- 

LER.) 



dermis, known as a "foot cell," one hair being seated directly on this 
foot ceU, the other attached to its side. 

2. Hypoderm (Fig. 153, K; Fig. 155). Three or more layers of 
cells characterized by their numerous minute pores form this coat. In 
cross section the cells, like cork cells, are quadrilateral and arranged 
in radial rows. 

3. Humus Cells. As is true of madia and niger fruits, the pericarp 



196 OIL SEEDS. 

of varieties of sunflower with dark or striped seeds, has a deposit of pitch- 
hke substance between the hypoderm and the fiber bundles. Fig. 153 
shows a section of a fruit in which this deposit was not present. This 
material was at one time regarded as an intercellular deposit, but has 
recently been shown by T. F. Hanausek to consist of a layer of cells, 
disorganized through what appears to be a humification process. In 
the early stages of growth the loosely arranged elongated cells bear numer- 
ous minute protuberances on the outer and radial walls, which undergo the 
process of disorganization before the cell proper. This observation led 
him to surmise that the change was due to oxidation, the air spaces formed 
by, the protuberances facihtating the absorption of oxygen. 

4. The Fiber Bundles (Fig. 153, H\ Fig. 155) consist of several layers 
of longitudinally arranged fibers. Proceeding from without inward, the 
cells increase in size; the porous walls diminish in thickness. Not only 
are these bundles larger than in madia and niger, but the elements are 
broader and have much broader lumens (often 50 n). The bundles are 
separated by radial rows of thin-walled cehs (Fig. 153, m) reminding one 
of medullary rays, and each adjoins on its inner side a small vascular 
bundle. 

5. Parenchyma (p). An exceedingly thin-walled, loose parenchyma 
completes the pericarp. In the ripe seed the ceUs are much compressed, 
forming a white, papery tissue. 

Spermoderm. A delicate membrane, consisting of spermoderm and 
endosperm, closely envelops the seed. 

1. The Outer Epidermis (Fig. 156) as seen in surface view consists 
of rounded cells about 50 /< in diameter, with rather thick, obscurely 
beaded walls. 

2. Spongy Parenchyma, through which ramify the bundles of the 
raphe and its branches, forms the middle layer. 

3. An Inner Epidermis of more or less rectangular cells 8-20 // in 
diameter, may be seen in section on heating with chloral, and in surface 
view without treatment with reagents. 

Endosperm (Fig. 156). One, sometimes two, layers of typical aleu- 
rone cells 15-50 /< in diameter are readily found, both in cross sections 
and in surface mounts. Rectangular cells predominate, although triangu- 
lar and polygonal forms also occur. 

The Embryo (Fig. 157) consists of two folded cotyledons and a short 
radicle. The folded cotyledons have several rows of palisade cells ad- 
joining the inner epidermis — the upper epidermis after unfolding. These 



M/iDI/4 SEED. 



197 



contain irregularly spherical aleurone grains 3-12 /i in diameter, and 
fat globules. Only small aleurone grains occur in the epidermal cells. 



DIAGNOSIS. 



As sunflower achenes are shelled before expressing the oil, the cake 
contains only such fragments of the pericarp as escape separation. These 







'e b !<■ 



P 






^#i^M 



""A«i 



•771 



Fig. 156. Sunflower. Outer epidermis 
of spermoderm (below) and aleurone 
cells of endosperm (above), in surface 

view. (MOELLER.) 



Fig. 157. Sunflower. Cross section of 
cotyledon, o epidermis; p palisade 
cells; m isodiametric cells. (Moeller.) 



are readily identified by the twin-hairs (Fig. 154), the cork-like hypodemi 
with numerous fine pores, and the large fibers (Fig. 155). 

The spermoderm, endosperm, and embryo do not possess any char- 
acteristic tissues (Figs 156 and 157). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Benecke (2); Bohmer (6, 10, 23); Collin (8); 
Hanausek, T. F. (17, 48); Harz (18); Moeller (29). 
Hanausek, T. p.: Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des Perikarps von Helianlhus annuus. 

Ber. deutsch. Bot. Ges. 1902, 20, 449. 
Heineck: Beitrag zur Kenntniss des feineren Baues der Fruchtschalen der Compositen. 

Inaug.-Diss. Giessen. 1890. 
KoBUS: Kraftfutter und seiner Verfalschung. Landw. Jahrb. 18S4, 13, 813. 
Kraus: Ueber den Bau der trockner Perikarpien. Inaug.-Diss. Leipzig, 1866, 66. 
Pfister: Oelliefernde Kompositenfriichte. Landw. Vers. -Stat. 1894, 43, 441. 



JIADIA SEED. 

Common tarweed, known in Chili as "Madi" {Madia saliva Mol.), 
is one of several species of this genus natives of the Pacific coast of North 



198 



OIL SEEDS. 



and South America. It is cultivated as an oil seed in parts of the Ameri- 
can continent and more extensively in Germany. 

The slender, ribbed achenes, 4-8 mm. long, 2 mm. wide at the apex 
tapering to the base, are borne in heads 3-6 cm. in diameter. The 
achenes are usually light in color, but sometimes are nearly black. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Pericarp (Fig. 158, F\ Fig. 159). i. Epicarp (ep). The cells 
are longitudinally elongated, variable in size, with colorless, distinctly 
beaded walls and a thickened cuticle. 




Fig. 158. Madia (Madia saliva). Cross section of fruit. F pericarp consists of ep 
epicarp, liy hypoderm, br pigment plates, / fiber bundles, m partitions, and p paren- 
chyma; 5 spermoderm, with i? raphe; £ endosperm; C cotyledon containing a/ aleurone 
grains. X160. (Winton.) 

2. Hypoderm (hy). Thin-walled more or less collapsed cells form 
the second layer. 

3. Pigment Plates (br). As in niger seed and some varieties of sun- 
flower, the fiber bundles are covered with dark-colored plates of a ma- 
terial insoluble in all the common reagents, including boiling alkali. In 
surface view the markings, resembling those of a tortoise shell, which are 
due to the variable thickness of the pigment material, and the rows of 
minute pores appearing as light spots in the dark field, make this layer 
the most striking in the fruit. 

4. Fiber Bundles (/). The fibers are 5-15 fi in diameter and often 
are i mm. long, being smallest in the outer layers. Between the bundles 
are groups of thin-walled, more or less longitudinally elongated cells, 
forming wedge-shaped partitions (m). 

5. Parenchyma (p). Several rows of partially collapsed parenchyma 
cells form the inner layers of the pericarp. 



MADIA SEED 



199 



The Spennoderm (Figs. 158 and 159, S) consists of one distinct layer 
of parenchyma cells without any striking characters, and other less dis- 
tinct layers near the raphe bundles; 

Curiously shaped, pitted cells (Fig. 159, sc), some nearly isodiametric, 
others greatly elongated, are present at the base of the seed, the longer 




Fig. 159. Madia. Elements of fruit in surface view, ep epicarp; hy hypoderm; br 
pigment plates; / fiber bundle; S spermoderm with R raphe bundle; sc pitted cells 
at base of spermoderm; £H<i endosperm. X160. (Winton.) 

forms extending in bundles toward the apex. These bundles appear 
to be distinct from the raphe and its ramifications. 

The Endosperm (Figs. 158 and 159, E) is represented by a single 
layer of thick-walled, often quadrilateral, aleurone-cells. 

Embryo. Beneath the outer epidermis of the folded cotyledons 
(Fig. 158, C) are several layers of isodiametric cells, but adjoining the inner 
epidermis are three to four layers of typical palisade cells. Aleurone 
grains (2-6 /<) and fat are the only visible contents. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Madia fruit has much the same structure as sunflower and niger 
fruits; but is distinguished from the former by having no hairs on the 
epicarp (Fig. 159, ep), a single layer of hypodermal cells, and fibers 
(/) with relatively small diameters; while it differs from niger seeds in 
having the walls of the epicarp beaded, an inconspicuous hypoderm layer 
(no rail-shape cells), and the walls of the spermoderm (5) straight and 
non-porous. 



200 OIL SEEDS. 

BIBLICM3RAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Benecke (2); Bohmer (6, 10, 23); Collin (8); 
Hanausek, T. F. (17, 48); Harz (18). 

Pfister: Oelliefernde Kompositenfriichte. Landw. Vers.-Stat. 1894, 43, 441. 
WiNTON : The Anatomy of Certain Oil Seeds with Especial Reference to the Microscopic 
Examination of Cattle Foods. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1903, 175. 



NIGER SEED. 

The fniit of Giiizolia Ahyssinica (L) Cass. (G. oleifera D.C.), a 
composite plant, is an important oil seed in Abyssinia, its native country, 
and also in India. It has been introduced into Europe and America, but 
has not been extensively cultivated as yet. 

The black achenes are shaped like those of madia, but are much 
smaller, seldom over 5 mm. long and i mm. broad at the apex. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Pericarp (Fig. 160, F; Fig. 161). i. The Epicarp cehs (ep) are dis- 
tinguished from those of madia by their greater length and the absence 
of pores. 

2. Hypoderm Qiy). Pfister has shown that the isolated, longitudi- 
nally elongated cells of this layer are shaped like railway rails, resembling 




Fig. 160. Niger Seed (Gidsotia Abyssinica). Cross section of hull. F pericarp consists 
of ep epicarp, liy hypoderm, br pigment plates, / fiber bundles, m partitions and p paren- 
chyma; 5 spermoderm; E endosperm. X300. (Winton.) 

in cross section the hour-glass cells of the legumes. The color of the 
seed is largely due to the black pigment in this layer. 

3. The Pigment Plates (br) are similar to those of madia seed, but 
Ihe cross markings are nearer together and not so distinct. 

4. The Fiber Bundles (/) are smaller than the similar bundles of 
madia, and the individual fibers are narrower. 

5. Parenchyma. The partitions between the fiber bundles (m), and 
also the inner layers of the pericarp (p), consist of parenchyma cells which, 
in the layers adjoining the spermoderm, are usually compressed. 



NIGER SEED. 



20I 



Spermoderm. i. Reticulated Cells (Figs i6o and i6i, S). Charac- 
teristic of this seed are the reticulated cells with wavy side walls, forming 
the outer layer of the spermoderm. 

2. Inner Layers. One or more layers of obliterated cells form the 
inner spermoderm. 

Endosperm (Fig. i6o and i6i, E). As in madia, the endosperm 




„mfff^7^ 



•"^ 



m 




Fig. i6i. Niger Seed. Pericarp, spermoderm and endosperm in surface view, ep epi- 
carp; hy hypoderm; br pigment plates; / fiber bundle; S spermoderm; E endosperm. 

X 300. (WiNTON.) 

consists of a single layer of thick- walled aleurone cells, often of retangular 
outline. 

Embryo. The thin-walled cells of the embryo contain aleurone 
grains and fat, and are not distinguishable from those of madia. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Niger cake is utihzed as a cattle food. The characteristic elements 
are the rail-shaped cells of the hypoderm (Fig. 161, hy) with their dark 
contents, and the outer layer of the spermoderm (S). These are 
rendered distinct bv treatment with alkali. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See Bibliography of Madia, p. 200. 



202 OIL SEEDS. 

MISCELLANEOUS OIL SEEDS. 

A number of oil seeds and fruits belonging to widely separated fam- 
ilies are of even greater importance for oil production than cruciferous 
seeds. Of those here described, linseed, cottonseed, castor bean, sesame 
seed and poppy seed are true seeds, while hemp seed is a dry fruit, and 
the olive is a fleshy fruit. 

LINSEED. 

The flax plant (Linum usitatissinium L. order Linacece) is valuable 
not only for its fibers, but for its seed, which yields one of the most use- 
ful of the vegetable oils, also a concentrated cattle food. Since the fiber 
is in its best condition before the seeds reach maturity, it is not practicable 
to secure a yield of both fiber and seed from the same crop. 

Flax is grown for seed throughout the temperate zone, particularly in 
India, Russia, Egypt, and the United States. 

The anatropous seed is flattened, obovate with a' slightly beaked 
base, and varies from 4-6 mm. in length. To the naked eye the surface 
is smooth and lustrous, but under a lens appears slightly roughened. 
The Indian seed is yellow, the ordinary varieties brown. The straight 
embryo consists of two long, thick cotyledons and a short radicle, the 
cotyledons being several times as thick as the inclosing endosperm (Fig. 
162). 

HISTOLOGY. 

Sections may be cut dry after embedding the seed in paraffine. They 
are first treated with ether and alcohol and afterwards mouuted in glyc- 
erine, thus preserving the mucilaginous contents of the epicarp cells, 
and the aleurone grains of the endosperm and cotyledons. 

Spermoderm (Fig. 163, S; Fig. 164). i. TJie Epidermis (ep) con- 
sists of polygonal cells covered by a colorless finely granular cuticle. If 
sections are first mounted in alcohol, and water is gradually drawn in 
from one edge, the thick outer wall is seen to have stratified inner layers 
of a mucilaginous material which nearly fills the cell cavity. It is this 
mucilaginous substance which gives the seed its value in medicine. 

2. Round Cells (p). One or two layers of yellow cells with circular 
cavities and marked intercellular spaces form the second layer. Their 
appearance in surface view is characteristic. 



LINSEED. 



203 



3. Fiber Layer (/). Strongly thickened, porous fibers longitudinally 
arranged make up this layer. They vary up to 250 // in length and 10 ju 





Fig. 162. Linseed (Linitm usi- 
tatissimum). Cross section 
showing 5 spermoderm, E 
endosperm and Em embryo. 

X35. (MOELLER.) 



Fig. 163. Linseed. Cross section of 5 spermoderm 
and E endosperm, ep outer epidermis; p round 
cells; / fiber layers; tr cross cells; g pigment cells. 

(MOELLER.) 








Fig. 164. Linseed. Elements in surface view, c cuticle with * fissures; ep epidermis; 
p round cells; / fiber layer; tr cross cells; g pigment cells; C cotyledon tissue. X 160. 

(MOELLER.) 



in breadth. As may be seen in cross section, their radial diameters 
are much greater than their breadth. 



204 OIL SEEDS. 

4. Cross Cells {tr). Several layers of exceedingly thin- walled, more 
or less obliterated, colorless cells cross the fibers of the preceding layer 
at right angles. 

Layers i to 4 inclusive usually separate from the seed together, pre- 
senting in surface view a highly characteristic appearance. 

5. Pigment Layer (g). Equally characteristic are the square or 
polygonal cells of this layer, with thick, porous walls and yellow or brown 
contents. This material is insoluble in alcohol or ether, but is colored 
dark blue by ferric chloride. It separates from the cells in the form 
of rectangular plates, which, owing to their color, are readily identified. 

The Endosperm (Fig. 163, E) is usually from 2 to 6 cell layers thick, 
being thinnest at the edges. The cells have thicker walls than those of 
the embryo and contain fat and distorted aleurone grains, each grain 
with a globoid in a sort of beak and an indistinct crystalloid in the body. 

Embryo (Fig. 164, C). The cells contain large, ovoid aleurone 
grains up to 20 /( long, like those of the endosperm, also minute grains. 

Tschirch and Oesterle recommend mounting in alcohol and running 
a water solution of iodine under the cover, thus staining the crystalloid 
yellow. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Ground Linseed is used chiefly as a drug, but linseed cake from the 
oil presses and the ground cake, known as linseed meal, are highly es- 
teemed by cattle feeders. 

The conspicuous elements are pieces of the yellow outer spermoderm, 
consisting of round cells (Fig. 164, p), fibers (/), and cross cells (tr), 
and also the nearly square, faintly beaded pigment cells (g) with brov^ni 
contents. These tissues are highly characteristic and permit the detec- 
tion of small amounts of linseed products in mixtures. Starch should 
not be present in considerable amount. 

Linseed Cake and the ground cake known as Linseed Meal are often 
contaminated with cruciferous and other seeds and sometimes adulter- 
ated with cheaper products. 

The meal is itself used as an adulterant for black pepper and other 
spices, and as an ingredient of many condimental cattle foods. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Benecke (2); Berg (3); Bohmer (6, 10, 23); 
Collin (8); Fluckiger (11); Hanausek, T. F. (10, 16, 17, 48); Harz (18): Mace (26); 
Meyer, A. (28); Moeller (29, 30, 31, 32); Schimper (37); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); 
Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (43, 45). 



COTTON SEED. 205 

Berghe: Tourteaux et Farines de Lin. Bruxelles, 1891. 

Cramer : Ueber das Vorkommen und die Entstehung einiger Pflanzenschleime. Pflan- 

zenphysiologische Untersuchungen von C. Nagali u. C. Cramer, Zurich, 1855. 
Godfrin: Etude histologique sur les tegument seminaux des Angiospermes. Soc. 

d. Sci. d. Nancy, 1880, 109. 
Haselhoff u. van Pesch. Ueber Leinsamenkuchen und Mehl. Landw. Vers. -Stat. 

1892, 41, 55 
KOBUS: Kraftfutter und seiner Verfalschung. Landw. Jahrb. 1884, 13, 813. 
Koran: Der Austritt des Schleimes aus dem Leinsamen. Pharm. Post, 1899, 32. 
Sempolowski : Ueber den Bau der Schale landwirthschaftlich wichtiger Samen. Landw. 

Jahrb. 1874, 3, 823. 

COTTON SEED. 

The varieties of upland or short-staple cotton commonly cultivated 
for fiber are classed under Gossypium herbaceum L. (order MalvacecE), 





I II 

Fig. i6v Cotton Seed (Gossypium herbaceum). I transverse section. II longitudinal 
section. 5 spermoderm; NE perisperm and endosperm; C cotyledons; R radicle. 

X4. (WiNTON.) 

although quite probably some of these varieties have been obtained by 
crossing with other species. Other species of economic importance are Sea 
Island or long-staple cotton (G. harhadense L.), and tree cotton (G. ar- 
bor cum L.). 

The culture of cotton has extended from India, its native country, 
to northern x^frica, the southern states of the United States, Brazil, and 
other warm regions. 

Within the bolls are borne numerous seeds in a mass of fibers, the 



2o6 OIL SEEDS. 

latter being but epidermal cells of the spermoderm prolonged as hairs 
(Fig. 165). After ginning, the seeds of upland cotton are still enveloped 
by a close ground fiber, often gray or green in color, which cannot be 
easily removed. Sea Island cotton seed is nearly free from ground fiber. 
Freed from the fiber, the pointed, egg-shaped, black or dark-brown seed 
is 6-12 mm. long. The chalaza is a little to one side of the broad upper 
end, the hilum and micropyle at the pointed lower end, the raphe con- 
necting them being evident as a ridge on- the surface. A shell-like spermo- 
derm and a thin skin consisting of perisperm and endosperm inclose the 
bulky embryo, the latter having cotyledons which in cross section are 
dotted with minute dark-brown resin cavities. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The Spermoderm (Fig. 166, 5; Fig. 167) is 300 /< thick, separating 
readily from the seed. The inner surface is brown with a whitish opales- 
cence. 

1. Epidermis (ep). Over the raphe the epidermis is 30-40 /i thick, 
but in other parts it seldom exceeds 25 /x. The cells are conspicuous 
because of the thick (5-12 ,«), stratified, yellow walls and the dark-brown 
contents. In surface view, the cells are irregular in shape and vary in 
size from less than 10 to over 60 //. About the hairs they form rosettes. 
The hairs of cotton are twisted, thus distinguishing them from all other 
textile fibers. Stomata with thin, colorless-walled guard cells occur 
either singly or in pairs. 

2. Outer Brown Coat (hr). The hypodermal coat consists of thin- 
walled, often compressed cells, with indistinct contour and brown contents. 
Over most of the surface, this coat is but 20-40 // thick, and consists of 
only two or three cell layers, but about the raphe it is several times 
thicker. 

3. Colorless Cells {w). The next layer consists of small (10-30 n), 
colorless cells, with sharply defined walls 2-3 /t thick. Cells divided by 
tangential partitions occur not infrequently. Hanausek states that these 
cells contain occasional oxalate crystals or granular masses; most of 
them, however, are empty. 

4. Palisade Cells (pal). Over one-half of the thickness of the 
spermoderm is due to the thickened palisade cells. These remark- 
able and exceedingly characteristic cells are 8-20 p. wide, and about 
150 ,u long, each consisting of an outer portion of about one-third the 
length of the cell with nearly colorless walls, and an inner portion 



COTTON SEED. 



207 



with yellowish- brown walls. The lumen in the outer portion of each 
cell is narrow except for a globular enlargement at the inner end, 4-6 jx 
in diameter, containing a dark-colored material. Seen in tangential sec- 
tion, this cavity has radiating branches. An indistinct light line adjoins 




aep— 



lep — « 



Fig. 166. Cotton Seed. Cross section. 5 spermoderm consists of ep epidermis with 
h hair, hr outer brown coat with R raphe, w colorless cells, pal palisade cells, and 
a, h and c layers of inner brown coat; N perisperm; E endosperm; C cotyledon with 
aep outer epidermis and iep inner epidermis; 5 resin cavity surrounded by 2 mucilafre 
cells; a/ aleurone grains; ^ crystal cells; ^ procambium bundles. X160. (Wintox.) 

the outer wall. No lumen at all appears in the inner portion of these 
cells in cross section, but in tangential section faint radiating lines are 
evident, due, according to von Bretfeld, to lamella arranged about the 
axis of the cell. Individual cells isolated by macerating with Schulze's 
solution and treated wdth chromic acid show clearly this differentiation. 



2o8 



OIL SEEDS. 



The same author found that the outer portion has all the chemical and 
optical properties of pure cellulose, the inner portion, those of lignified 
cellulose. Cross sections viewed with polarized light exhibit with a dark 
field a beautiful play of color in the outer, a clear white light in the inner 
portion. 

5. The Inner Brown Coat. In the outer layer of this coat (a), the 
cells are polygonal, and well defined both in cross section and surface 
view. Proceeding inward, the tissue takes on the characters of a typical 
spongy parenchyma, the cells in the innermost layers being much com- 




FiG. 167. Cotton Seed. Surface view of outer layers, ep epidermis of spermoderm 
with /^' hair and sto^ stoma; br outer brown cells; w colorless cells; pal^ and paP pali- 
sade cells (see Fig. 166); a, b, c layers of inner brown coat of spermoderm; .V perisperm; 
E endosperm; aep outer epidermis of cotyledon with h^ multicellular hair and sto^ 
sloma. X160. (WiNTON.) 



pressed {h and c). Brown coloring matter like that in the second layer 
of the spermoderm is usually present only in the cells of the outer layers. 
Owing to the absence of cell-contents in the inner obhtcrated cells, the 
inner surface of the spermoderm is more or less opalescent. 

Perisperm (Figs. 166 and 167, N). An exceedingly thin skin con- 
sisting of a single cell layer of perisperm and another of endosperm 
covers the embryo. The colorless perisperm cells are characterized by 
the fringe-like walls made up of threads perpendicular to the surface. 
Hanausek's name, "fringe cells," is very appropriate. 

Endosperm (Figs. 166 and 167, E). A single layer of moderately 



COTTON SEED. 209 

thick-walled cells containing small aleurone grains constitutes the endo- 
sperm. 

Embryo. After soaking for a day in water, the complicated folds 
of the cotyledons (Fig. 166, C) may be straightened out and their broad 
kidney shape noted. 

By scraping the cotyledons the epidermis (Figs. 166 and 167, aep) may 
be removed for examination. As was first noted by Hanausek, three 
kinds of cells are present: first, thin-walled polygonal cells; second, 
pairs of cells with curved walls, the guard cells of incipient stomata {sto'^)', 
and third, small cells continued beyond the surface in the form of oval 
hairs divided into several cells by cross partitions (/z-). The hairs are 
most abundant at the point of insertion on the axis. 

Sections of the cotyledons and radicle may be cut dry without remov- 
ing the spermoderm, although better sections are obtained after remov- 
ing the spermoderm and embedding directly in paraffine. 

In the outer portion of the mesophyl, the cells are isodiametric, 
in the inner layers, of typical palisade form. Procambium bundles {g) 
run longitudinally or obliquely through the mesophyl. 

Crystal clusters {k) occur in cells scattered here and there, but in 
most of the mesophyl cells aleurone grains and fat are the only visible 
contents. The aleurone grains {al) are 2-5 jx in diameter and are more 
or less angular or irregular in shape. Alkali dissolves the aleurone 
grains and other contents and imparts a deep-yellow color to the tissues. 

The so-called resin cavities of the cotyledons {s), containing a dark- 
colored secretion, appear to the naked eye as brown dots in the nearly 
colorless ground tissue. Around these cavities two or more indistinct 
rows of exceedingly thin, elongated cells (the mucilage cells of Hanausek) 
are arranged in concentric layers. 

We are indebted to Hanausek for the following observations: Ex- 
amined in water, the secretion is olive-green, flowing out of the cavities 
in the form of a yellow-green emulsion, the particles of which are in 
lively motion. Strong sulphuric acid dissolves the secretion to a beau- 
tiful blood-red solution. Alkalies color it green-brown, but do not dis- 
solve it. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

U ndecorticated Cottonseed Cake. It is customary in India, Egypt, and 
in most cotton-growing countries, except the United States, to express 
the oil without previous removal of the hulls. The cake obtained as a 
by-product in this process, although containing more fiber and less pro- 



2IO OIL SEEDS. 

tein than the decorticated cake, is preferred by the Enghsh feeders, be- 
cause of the mechanical action of the hulls. 

Samples should be mounted in water and examined first directly 
to detect possible starchy adulterants, and again after addition of alkali, 
noting the fragments of spermoderm and the yellow color of the dis- 
organized lumps. The coats of the spermoderm are best studied in 
fat- and protein-free material obtained by the crude-fiber process or 
by Hebebrand's method (p. 172). 

Especially characteristic are the thick-walled epidermal cells (Figs. 166 
and 167, ep) with hairs and the pahsade cells {pal), although the other 
layers aid in identification. The fringe cells (A^) of the perisperm are char- 
acteristic, but not so conspicuous as are the layers of the spermoderm. 

The cake or meal from common cotton contains more fiber (often 
attached to fragments of hull) and less abundant brown pigment in both 
the outer brown layer and the inner, than products of the varieties of 
G. Barhadense (Sea Island Cotton, Egyptian Cotton, etc.). Voelcker 
places considerable dependence on the more or less pronounced opales- 
cent appearance of the inner surface of the hulls of Bombay seed as dis- 
tinguished from the deep-brown inner surface of the hulls from Egyptian 
seed, a distinction which also holds good in most cases between upland 
and Sea Island seed as grown in the United States. This observation, 
first brought to notice by Richardson of Lincoln, England, depends on 
the degree of obliteration of the innermost cells of the spermoderm. 

Decorticated Cotton-seed Cake. In the United States, upland cotton 
seed is hulled before expressing the oil, the cake and the rich yellow meal 
obtained by grinding the cake consisting of material from the cotyledon 
with only a small amount of spermoderm. This meal is often -grossly 
adulterated with ground cotton hulls, and occasionally with rice refuse. 
Finely ground hulls, owing partly to the fine state of division of the dark- 
colored m after, and partly to the exposure of the nearly colorless palisade 
cells, is not so dark as the coarsely ground hulls and more readily escapes 
detection in the meal. 

Determinations of nitrogen and fiber, coupled with microscopic ex- 
amination of the original material and of the crude fiber, serve for the de- 
tection of this form of adulteration. 

Cotton Hulls formerly were burned as a fuel under the boilers of 
the oil mills, and the ash, rich in potash, utilized as a tobacco fertilizer. 
They are now used for feeding cattle or as an adulterant of cotton-seed 
meal, as noted above. 



KAPOK SEED. an 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 



See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Benecke (2); Bohmer (6, 10, 23); Collin (8); 
Hanausek, T. F. (17, 48). 
V. Bretfeld: Anatomie des Baumwolle- und Kapoksames. Jour. f. Landw. 1887, 

35, 29. 
Hanausek, T. I'".: Zur mikroskopischen Charakteristik dcr Baumwollsamen-Producte. 

Ztsch. allg. ostcrr. Apoth.-Ver. 1888, 2(5, 569, 591. 
KoBUS: Kraftf utter und seiner Verfalschung, Landw. Jahrb. 1884, IS, 813. 
Voelcker: Methods of Discriminating between Egyptian and Bombay Cotton Seed 

Cakes. Analyst. 1903, 28, 261. 
WiNTON: The Microscopic Examination of American Cotton Seed Cake. Analyst, 

1904, 29, 44. The Anatomy of Certain Oil Seeds with Especial Reference to the 

Microscopic Examination of Cattle Foods. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1903, 175. 



KAPOK SEED. 

Several tropical trees belonging to the order Bomhacece have capsules 
filled with a dense mat of woolly hairs which spring from the endocarp, 
not as in the case of the cotton, a member of a closely related family, 
from the spermodemi. These hairs are too brittle to be of value as 
textile fibers, but are used for upholstery. Of these " silk-co'tton trees" 
the kapok (Ceibo pentandra (L.) Gartn., Eriodendron anjractuosum DC.), 
growing in the East and West Indies and other tropical regions, is of 
importance, not only for the fibers but also for the oily seeds, which re- 
semble cotton seeds in structure. In the Celebes the seeds are eaten by 
the natives, and in various countries are used for making oil. Two 
German authors, Reinders and Kobus, state that the cake is an adulter- 
ant of linseed cake. 

The campylotropous seed is about the size of a pea and has a swollen 
funiculus which covers the chalaza. The cotyledons are folded simi- 
larly to those of the cottonseed, but do not have resin cavities. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The following comparison of the structure of cotton and kapok seeds 
is given by v. Bretfeld: 

Cotton Seed. Kapok Seed. 

Spermoderm. 

1. Epidermis. sclerenchymatized with thin-walled with gland-like 

hairs; cavities. 

2. Outer Brown Coat: with fibro-vascular bundles; without fibro-vascular bun- 

dles. 



212 



OIL SEEDS. 



Spermoderm : 

3. Colorless Cells: 

4. Palisade Cells: 

5. Inner Brown Coat: 
Perisperm: 

Cotyledons: 



Cotton Seed. 
1-2 cell layers; 



Kapok Seed. 



3-4 cell layers with crystal 
clusters. 
J longer; J shorter, 

more star cells; fewer star cells, 

cells smaller, walls more cells larger, walls less knotty. 

knotty; 
green tissue with resin colorless tissue without resin 

cavities; cavities. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Bretfeld: Anatomic des Baumwolle- und Kapoksamens. Jour. Landw. 1887, 35, 29. 
KoBUS: Kraftfutter und seiner Verfalschung. Landw. Jahrb. 1884, 3, 813. 
Van Pesch; Kapok-Kuchen. Landw. Vers. -Stat. 1896, 47, 471. 

HEnP=SEED. 

Hemp {Cannabis saliva L. order CannabinecB) is grown as a fiber 
plant throughout Europe, especially in Russia, also in Africa, India, 
China, Brazil, the United States and other regions. 

When the production of fiber alone is considered, the plant is cut 
shortly after blooming; but in Russia it is allowed to grow until the fruit 
reaches maturity, thus securing a yield of seed as well as fiber. Indian 
hemp (Cannabis saliva var. Indica) is grown exclusively as a medicinal herb. 

The dioecious plant yields an oval, somewhat flattened, two-ribbed 
fruit, consisting of a brown pericarp delicately marked with white veins 
(Fig. 168, // and ///, F), a spermoderm (5) of a green color, a thin endo- 
sperm, and a bulky embryo with thick cotyledons (C) and a radicle (R) 
bent parallel to the cotyledons. The "seeds" on the market consist, 
for the most part, of naked fruit, with an occasional fruit inclosed within 
the hooded calyx (Fig. 168, /). 

HISTOLOGY. 

Calyx (Fig. 169). i. Ouler Epidermis (aep). From among the 
polygonal cells of the epidermis arise two very characteristic and striking 
elements: first, the glands, either sessile or stalked {d)\ and second, 
tlie cystolith hairs {h). The glands are globular with eight or more 
cells on the under side radiating, usually, from two central cells, the 
secretion cavity being formed by the separation of the outer cuticle 
from these cells. These glands are usually borne on many-celled stalks, 
often 300 fj. long. The cystolith hairs are characterized by their irregu- 



HEMP-SEED. 



213 



larly globular bases, often 75 /( in diameter, in which is suspended a 
cystolithof calcium carbonate {cy). They taper either abruptly or gradu- 






FlG. 168. Hemp {Camiabis sativa). I calyx. 11 outer surface of fruit. /// longitudinal 
section of fruit. jF pericarp; 5 spcrmoderni; £ endosperm; C cotyledon; i? radicle. 

X 4. (WiNTON.) 

ally from this base to the pointed apex, in the latter case often reaching 
a length of 500 jj. and sometimes i mm. The walls, although but one- 
half to one-sixth as thick as the lumen, are often 8 /i thick. 

2. Mesophyl (mcs). Several layers of small cells, through which 
run numerous bundles, make up the mesophyl. In the inner layer the 




Fig. 169. Hemp. Calyx in surface view, aep outer epidermis with h hair containing 
cy cystolith, and d glandular hair; mes mesophyl containing crystals; iep inner epi- 
dermis. X160. (WiNTON.) 

cells are about 10 /^ in diameter and contain crystal clusters of calcium 
oxalate. 



214 



OIL SEEDS. 



3. The Inner Epidermis (iep). Cells with wavy outline, thin-walled 
hairs, and stomata form the inner layer. 

Pericarp (Figs. 170 and 171). i. Epicarp (ep). This layer consists 
of more or less sclerenchymatized cells with wavy outline. The radial 
walls are, in some parts, moderately thickened, in others so thick that 
there is but a narrow lumen. All the walls are porous. 

2. Spongy Parenchyma (hy). One or more layers of colorless cells, 
usually with numerous circular intercellular spaces, form a hypodermal 




Fig. 170. Hemp Seed. Cross section of fruit. F pericarp consists of ep epicarp, hy 
hypoderm, br brown cells, w dwarf cells, and pal palisade cells; 5 spermoderm consists 
of sch tube cells and s spongy parenchyma; N perisperm; E endosperm; C" cotyledon 
with aep outer epidermis, and iep inner epidermis; al aleurone grains. Xi6o. 

(WiNTON.) 

coat. Through this layer run the numerous anastomosing bundles, 
which, seen through the epicarp, are evident to the naked eye as veins. 
This layer is thickest in the two keels of the fruit. 

3. Brown Cells (br). Owing to their greater thickness and the presence 
of brown contents, these cells are more readily distinguished in cross 
section than those of the preceding layer. In preparations obtained by 
heating the fruit in alkali and scraping, they are conspicuous. Focusing 
on the outer wall, the radial walls are straight or moderately sinuous; 
but further inward they are zigzag with projections — often branching — 
extending into the cell cavity and forming in each cell what appear to be 
several indistinct compartments. The cell-contents, after this treatment, 
form irregular lumps shrunken away from the walls. 



HEMP-SEED. 



215 



cross 



4. Dwarf Cells (w). Owing to its thinness, this layer can be seen in 



section only in carefully cut specimens; but in tangential sections 




Fig. 171. Hemp. Pericarp in surface view seen from without, e/? epicarp; /ly hypoderm 
with sp spiral vessels; br brown cells; w colorless cells; pal^ palisade cells (see Fig. 170). 
X160. (WiNTON.) 

or preparations obtained by the treatment above described, the minute, 
colorless, porous cells (seldom over 12 ^) with wavy, radial walls are 
readily distinguished. 

5. Palisade Layer {pal). This layer, owing to its thickness (often 
100 /<), the peculiarly thickened porous walls, and the wavy outlines of 




Fig. 172. Hemp. Palisade cells, spermoderm, perisperm, and endosperm seen from 
within, pap palisade cells (see Fig. 170); sch tube cells and 5 spongy parenchyma 
of spermoderm; N perisperm; £ endosperm. X160. (Winton.) 

the radial walls as seen both in cross and tangential sections, is the most 
conspicuous and characteristic of all the layers of the fruit. So strongly 
sclerenchymatized are the outer and, except at the inner end, the radial 
walls, that the lumen is reduced to a narrow line for fully two-thirds of 



2i6 OIL SEEDS. 

the outer portion of the cell {pal ^); at the inner wall, however, the radial 
walls abruptly narrow, leaving a wide lumen (Fig. 172, pal^). The 
inner wall is porous and moderately thickened. 

Spermoderm (Figs. 170 and 172, S). The cells contain green granules, 
which arc insoluble in alcohol, ether, and alkali. 

1. Tube Cells {sell). The outer layer is quite distinct from the inner 
layer, owing to the elongated form of the cells and the elongated rows of 
intercellular spaces. 

2. Inner' Layer (5). Further inward the' cells form an indistinct 
spongy parenchyma with star-shaped or irregular cell outlines. 

Perisperm (Figs. 170 and 172, N). If the fruit is soaked for a day 
or two in I J per cent soda solution, the perisperm with adhering endosperm 
readily separates from the spermoderm on the one hand and the embryo 
on the other. In cross section it is indistinctly seen. 

The Endosperm (Figs. 170 and 172, E) forms a coat, mostly one cell- 
layer thick, about the whole embryo, and also extends in the form of a 
partition several layers thick between the cotyledons and the radicle. 
These cells, containing small protein grains, resemble the aleurone cells 
of the cereals. 

Embryo (Fig. 170, C). Both epidermal layers of the cotyledons are 
composed of small cells with aleurone grains 2-3 /i in diameter. Beneath 
the outer epidermis are several layers of isodiametric cells, while adjoin- 
ing the inner epidermis are two layers of typical palisade cells. Both 
forms of cells contain, in addition to fat, aleurone grains up to 8 n. 
Each grain consists of an irregularly-spherical or elliptical body con- 
taining a crystalloid with a globoid excrescence. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The seeds serve primarily for the production of oil; but the cake from 
the oil presses is utilized in various parts of Europe as a cattle food, a fer- 
tilizer, and possibly as an adulterant. 

The characteristic elements are the epicarp (Fig. 171, ep), the spongy 
parenchyma Qiy) with anastomosing bundles, the dwarf cells {w), the 
palisade cells {pal), and the tube cells (Fig, 172, sch) of the sper- 
moderm with green contents insoluble in alcohol, ether and alkali. 

Extraction with ether, and treatment by Hebebrand's method (p. 172) 
may be used to prepare material for examination. If sufficiently large 
fragments of the shell are obtainable, the palisade cells are best identified 



SESAME SEED. 



217 



in cross section, and the dwarf cells in tangential section. The aleurone 
grains,, if still intact, may be seen in turpentine mounts. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Benecke (2); Bohmer (6, 10, 23); Collin (8); 
Hanausek T. F. (17); Harz (18); Tschirch (39); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40). 
:Macchiati: Sessualita, anatomia del frutto e germinatione del seme della canapa. 

Bull. d. Statione agraria di Modena, i88g, Nov. Ser. 9. 
Tschirch: Ueber den anatomischen Bau und die Entwickelungsgeschichte der Secret- 

driisen des Hanfes. Naturforscherversammlung, 1886. Ber. in Pharm. Ztg, 

1886, 31, 577. 
WiNTON: Anatomie des Hanfsamens. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm. 1904, 7, 385. 

The Anatomy of Certain Oil Seeds with Especial Reference to the Microscopic 

Examination of Cattle Foods. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1903, 175. 




SESAflE SEED. 

Common sesame (Scsamum Indicum L., order Gesneracea) is one of 
the most valuable cultivated plants in India, China, Asia Minor, Palestine, 
Arabia, and other parts of the Orient, the 
seeds serving for the production of oil 
and cake, also for direct consumption as 
human food. The plant is also to some 
extent cultivated in Egypt, parts of East 
Africa, and in the warmer parts of North 
and South America. 

The flattened pear-shaped seeds (Fig. 
173) are 2-3 mm. long and vary in color 
from white to brown. Passing longitu- 
dinally through the center of one of the 
flattened sides, is the. raphe {R), and run- 
ning around the edge of each of the flattened surfaces is an indistinct ridge 
conforming to the shape of the seed (/). The endosperm (£) is about 
half as thick as the cotyledon (C). 

HISTOLOGY. 

Spermoderm (Fig. 174, S] Fig. 175). i. Epidermis (ep). The cells 
throughout are radially elongated with convex outer walls. Owing to 
the thinness of the radial walls, they are usually collapsed, but assume 
their normal form on heating cross sections with dilute alkali. The cells 
forming the ridges are empty and, as was first noted by Benecke, are 



Fig. 173. .Sesame Seed {Sesamum 
Indicum). I outer surface of seed. 
// transverse section. S spermo- 
derm with / ridges and R raphe; 
E endosperm; C cotyledon. X8. 
(WiNTON ) 



2l8 



OIL SEEDS. 



arranged like the vanes of a feather. In other parts the cells are parallel 
and each contains in the extreme outer end, adjoining the thin outer wall, 




E S 

Fig. 174. Sesame. Cro^s section of seed. 5 spermoderm consists of ep epidermal cells 
with Ca crystal masses, / epidermal cells of ridges, p parenchyma and m yellow mem- 
brane; £ endosperm; C cotyledon containing a/ aleurone grains. X160. (Winton.) 

an irregularly spherical mass consisting of calcium oxalate crystals {Co), 
apparently within a thin membrane. These masses are 12-40 p. in diam- 
eter. In surface view, as may be clearly seen by examination of the skin 
which separates after boiling the seed in water, the crystal cells are iso- 
diametric-polygonal (ep), the cells of the ridges slightly elongated (/). 




Fig. 17=;. Sesame. Spermoderm and endosperm in surface view, ep epidermis with Ca 
crystal masses; / epidermal cells of ridges; E endosperm. X160. (Winton.) 

By boihng with alkah on the slide, some of the epidermal cells may be 
isolated and, after staining with chlorzinc iodine, viewed in a horizontal 



SESAME SEED. 219 

position. Sometimes the crystal masses are disintegrated, the separate 
crystals presenting the appearance shown in Fig. 175. 

2. Parenchyma (Nutritive Layer) (/>). One, sometimes more, layers 
of collapsed cells, form what in the earlier stages of growth was a nutritive 
layer. Only after heating with alkali is the cellular structure at all 
evident in cross section and then but indistinctly. After removing the 
epidermis as above described and treating the seed with safranin or chlor- 
zinc iodine, colored fragments may be removed from the surface of the 
seed, which often show longitudinally elongated cells. Hanausek has 
noted that the cells contain loose crystals of calcium oxalate. 

3. Yellow Membrane (Fig. 174, m). Lining the inner surface of the 
spermoderm is a membrane, probably the cuticle of an obliterated inner 
epidermis. 

Endosperm (Figs. 174 and 175, E). The outer wall of the endosperm 
is strongly thickened. At the ends of the elliptical cross sections there 
are but two cell layers, but on the sides there are three to five layers. 
The cells contain aleurone grains (2-6 ji), and fat. 

Embryo (Fig. 174, C). The cells of the cotyledons, except in the 
single layer of palisade cells, are isodiametric and like those of the endo- 
sperm, contain aleurone grains (up to 10 [j.) and fat, but no starch. Hanau- 
sek states that each grain contains either a crystalloid or, at one of the 
poles, a globoid. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Not only is sesame oil one of the most valuable of the vegetable oils, 
but the seed itself is an ingredient of various articles of diet throughout 
the warmer countries of the East, and the cake obtained as a by-product 
in the manufacture of the oil serves as food for both man and beast. 
Sesame cake has been imported into Europe in large amount, where it 
is highly esteemed by cattle feeders. 

Samples of sesame cake may be prepared for examination by Benecke's 
or Hebebrand's method or by simply boiHng with i\ per cent alkali. 
Previous extraction with ether is desirable. 

Characteristic of common sesame are radially elongated, thin-walled 
epidermal cells (Fig. 175, ep), each with a crystal mass {Ca) in the outer 
end. In black sesame {S. radiatum S. et T.) the masses are in the inner 
end of the cell, where the cell-wall is strongly thickened. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Benecke (2); Bohmer (6, 10, 23); Collin (8): 
Hanausek, T. F. (17, 48); Harz (18). 



2 20 OIL SEEDS. 

Benecke: Die verschiedenen Sesamarten und Sesamkuchen des Handels. Pharm. 
Centralh. 1887, 545. 

Hebebrand: Ueber den Sesam. Landw. Vers. -Stat. 1898, 51, 45. 

KOBUS: Kraftfutter und seiner Verfalschung. Landw. Jahrb. 1884, 13, 813. 

WiNTON: The Anatomy of Certain Oil Seeds with Especial Reference to the Micro- 
scopic Examination of Cattle Foods. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1903, 175. 



CASTOR BEAN. 

The castor-bean plant (Ricinus communis L., order EuphorhiacecB) is 
grown for its oily seeds, from which is obtained the castor-oil of commerce. 
Castor pomace, although not suited for use as a cattle food because of 
the highly poisonous ingredient "ricine,'' is a valuable fertihzer. As this 
material has repeatedly been consumed by animals with fatal results, 
its microscopic detection is sometimes desirable. 

The seeds are obovoid, slightly flattened, with markings like those of 
a tortoise shell. On one of the flattened sides the raphe is clearly evident, 
and at the base a prominent caruncle. The 
^^^^t:Ly%fe^ ^^ spermoderm is hard and exceedingly brittle; the 
endosperm is bulky; the cotyledons of the axial 
^ embryo are broad but thin. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The Spermoderm (Fig. 176) consists of five 
distinct layers of which four are readily removed 
as a brittle shell. As noted by Collin, the three 
outer layers may be separated from the fourth by 
boihng with dilute alkali. The innermost layer 
remains attached to the seed after shelling. 
., ^ I. The Epidermis (Fig. 176, ep; Fig. 177) is 

emus communis). Cross ^ \ o / ^ ^ , ,/ 

section of outer portion characterized by the sharply polygonal, finely pitted 
dlrm^r^tpo'Ilgy parTnl cclls, some of which are colorless, others of a brown 
chyma; p thin-walled color, hencc the mottled appearance of the seed. 

palisade cells; P scleren- t^ 7 / n r i 1 

chymatized palisade cells. 2. Spongy Parenchyma (5) forms a layer several 

(MOELLER.) ^^j^g ^j^.^j.^ 

3. Thin-walled Palisade Cells (p) with dark contents are the elements 
of the third layer. In surface view the cells are polygonal or rounded, 
12-20 fi in diameter, and often have intercellular spaces at the angles. 

4, Sclerenchymatized Palisade Cells (P) constitute a layer 200 /j. thick. 
The cell-walls are of a brown color and show distinct pores. At the 




lor Bean {Ri- 



CASTOR BEAN. 



221 



outer ends the cell cavities are somewhat broader than at other parts. 
Seen in surface view, the cells are polygonal, 8-15 // in diameter. 

5. hiner Layer. After removing the foregoing layers, the seed, on 
close examination, is seen to be enveloped by a thin white skin— the inner 
layer of the spermoderm. This consists of a colorless, thin-walled, more 
or less compressed parenchyma, several cells thick, and numerous fibro- 




FlG. 177. Castor Bean. Cuter 
epidermis in surface view. 

(MOELLER.) 




Fig. 178. Castor Bean. Aleurone grains of 
endosperm. A in oil; 5 in iodine solution. 

(MoELLER.) 



vascular bundles. Crystal clusters and radiating groups of feather-Hke 
crystals are readily found in surface mounts. 

Endosperm (Fig. 178). By far the greater part of the reserve material 
of the seed, consisting largely of aleurone grains and fat, is in the endo- 
sperm. The aleurone grains are round, elhpsoidal, or egg-shaped, and 
frequently reach a diameter of 20 /«. Each contains a large crystalloid 
and an excentrically located globoid. Rarely two or more globoids are 
present. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Highly characteristic of this seed are the sharply polygonal, pitted 
epidermal cells (Fig. 177) of the spermoderm, some with, others without, 
brown contents, and the brown, sclerenchymatized pahsade cells (Fig. 
176, P). The other layers of the spermoderm are also of some diag- 
nostic value. Numerous large aleurone grains (Fig. 178), each with a 
large crystalloid and a smaller globoid, are seen in turpentine or glycerine 
mounts. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (6, 10, 23); Collin (8); Hanausek, 
T. F. (48); Planchon et Collin (34); Tichomirow (38). 
Collin : Tourteau de ricin; ses dangers, ses caracteres anatomiques. Jour, pharm. 

chim. 1903. 
Gram: Om Frosskallens Bygning hos Euphorbiaceerne. On the structure of the 

spermoderm of euphorbiaceous seeds. Bot. Tidskrift. 1896. 20, 358. 



22 2 OIL SEEDS. 

Gris: Note sur le developpement de la graine du Ricin. Ann. Soc. nat. Bot. 1861, 15^ 

5; 1862, 17, 312; 1864, Ser. V. 2, 5. 
Kayser: Beitrage zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Samendecken bei den Euphorbiaceen 

mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung von Ricinus communis L. Ber. Pharm. Ges. 

1892, 2, 45- 
Pammel: On the Seed Coats of the Genus Euphorbia. Contributions from Shaw 

School of Bot. 1891, No. 8, 543. 
SCHLOTTERBECK: Beitrage zur Entwicklungsgeschichte pharmakognostisch wichtiger 

Samen. Inaug.-Diss. Bern, 1896. 



CANDLENUT. 

The seeds of the candlenut tree {Aleurites triloba Forst., A. Moluc- 
cana (L.) Willd., order Euphorhiacece) yield a valuable oil used as food 
and in the arts. The tree is a native of the Moluccas and the southern 
islands of Polynesia, but is cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions 
of both the Old and the New World, including Florida and California. 

The fruit is nearly globular, 5-6 cm. in diameter, and has two locules, 
each containing a single dark-brown, chestnut-shaped seed about 30 
mm. in diameter, consisting of a hard spermoderm 2-5 mm. thick, a 
bulky endosperm, and in the axis of the endosperm a thin embryo 
with broadly heart-shaped, leaf-like cotyledons and a short radicle. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Wichmann made a thorough microscopic study of candlenut seeds 
on the market in 1880, and found the structure in most details analogous 
to that of the castor-bean. His material, however, lacked tissues cor- 
responding to the epidermis and subepidermal layer of the castor-bean, 
and his observations as well as my own further indicate that such tissues 
may have been present in the original seed but were removed before 
reaching the market. 

Spermoderm (Fig. 179). i. Thin-walled Palisade Cells (p). Al- 
though probably not the epidennis, this is the outermost layer of the 
commercial seed. The prismatic, thin-walled cells are colorless and 
filled with a granular mass of calcium carbonate. 

2. Sclerenchymaiized Palisade Cells (P). These cells correspond in 
structure with the brown palisade cells of the castor-bean, but are 
characterized by their much greater height, which varies from 1.5 to 
over 2.5 mm. Both the porous walls and the cell-contents are of a 
brown color. 



CANDLENUT. POPPY -SEED. 



223 



3. Parenchyma (s). This layer is characterized by the narrow, greatly 
elongated pores of the cell-walls and the cystolith-like masses of calcium 
oxalate contained in the cells. The cells increase 
in size from without inward and have intercellular 
spaces at the corners. 

4. Compressed Cells form the inner layers. 
The Endosperm contains, in addition to oil, 

aleurone grains from 8-24 u. in diameter, similar to 
those of the castor-bean. A crystalloid is always 
present in each grain, also one to two globoids. 

Calcium oxalate occurs in crystal clusters in the 
cells but not in the aleurone grains. 

Embryo. The cells are smaller than those of 
the endosperm, but like the latter contain oil and 
aleurone grains. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The cake is distinguished from castor-pomace 
by the greater height of both layers of palisade 
cells (Fig. 179). The colorless outer layer contains 
granules of calcium carbonate; the inner brown 
cells have amorphous contents. These latter often 
reach 2.5 mm. in length. The narrow, elongated 
pores in the parenchyma of the third layer are fig. 179. Candltnut 

{Aleuntes triloba). 
Spermoderm in cross 
section. p thin- 
walled palisade cells; 
P brown sclerenchy- 
matized palisade cells; 
5 spongy parenchyma. 

(MOELLER.) 




more or less evident. Aleurone grains similar to 
those of the castor-bean form a large part of the 
material. 

POPPY-SEED. 




The poppy plant (Papaver somnijernm L. order 

Papaveracea), a native of the Orient, is now 
cultivated in various parts of the Old and New 
World. 

Two distinct varieties are recognized, the 
white, and the black or blue. The white 
poppy is grown chiefly for the production of 
opium, the black for the seed, from which is 
expressed poppy oil. 

The anatropous seeds (Fig. 180), are very small, seldom over i mm. 
long, and kidney-shaped, one end being slightly broader than the other. 



Fig. 180. Poppy {Papaver 
somnijerum). /seed, //em- 
bryo. X16. (WiNTON.) 



224 



OIL SEEDS. 



The hilum and chalaza are in a notch, connected by a short raphe, the 
chalaza being nearer the broad end of the seed. Under the lens the 




Fig. i8i. Poppy Seed in cross section. JJ spermoderm consists of ep epidermis, k crystal 
layer, / fiber layer, q cross cells and n netted cells; E endosperm, contains al aleurone 
grains. Xi6o. (Winton.) 

surface is beautifully reticulated. The straight embryo is embedded in 
the bulky endosperm. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Spermoderm (Fig. i8i, S; Fig. 182). Cross sections are prepared 
after soaking the seed in water and may be cleared with chloral or alkali. 
After soaking the whole seed for about 24 hours in i^ per cent sodium 
hydrate solution, the first four layers readily separate from the fifth.. 




Fig. 182. Poppy. Spermoderm in surface view, ep epidermis; k crystal layer; / fiber 
layer; q cross cells; n netted cells containing pig pigment. Xi6o. (AVinton.) 

Subsequent treatment with hydrochloric acid dissolves out the calcium 
oxalate, and staining with chlorzinc iodine or safranin renders the outer 
layers more distinct. 



POPPY-SEED. 225 



1. The Epidermal Cells (ep) are polygonal and of enormous size, 
corresponding to the network on the seed. As appears in cross section 
the cells are collapsed except in the neighborhood of the radial walls. 
In surface view the radial walls are sinuous and thin, what are often 
considered the thick dark walls of this layer being not the walls at all 
but the ribs formed by the thickening of the second and third layers. 

2. Crystal Layer (k). On the ribs, the cells of this layer are more or 
less tangentially elongated, but between the ribs, are isodiametric and 
polygonal, the elongated cells having longer radial walls than the others, 
thus contributing to the formation of the ribs. They contain fine, granu- 
lar crystals of calcium oxalate. Meyer has demonstrated that the blue 
color is due to the interference of hght by the crystals over the brown 
cells in the background, and is the same phenomenon as causes the ap- 
parent blue color of the sky and the iris of the eye. As soon as these 
crystals are dissolved in hydrochloric acid, the seed appears brown. 

3. Fiber Layer (/). The fibers of this layer are 15-40 // broad and 
are parallel to the curved axis of the seed. Seen in cross section, this 
layer is thickest in the ribs, the walls throughout being distinctly thick- 
ened and stratified. In surface view they are rendered more distinct by 
chlorzinc iodine. 

4. Cross Cells (q). The fourth layer consists of moderately thick- 
walled, transversely elongated, pointed cells arranged side by side in 
rows. The walls are impregnated with a brown material. 

5. Netted Cells («). Owing to the netted-veined, colorless walls and 
the presence of deep brown contents, these cells are particularly strik- 
ing. They are arranged transversely and are often side by side in rows. 
The cell-contents are insoluble in alkali and do not give the tannin re- 
action. 

Some authors designate the cells of this layer "pigment cells," not- 
withstanding the fact that in the white poppy they do not contain pigment. 

Meyer, Tschirch and Oesterle, Vogl, and Hanausek describe an inner 
layer of thin-walled cells, but this layer is not usually evident except 
in the vicinity of the hilum. 

The Endosperm (Fig. 181, E) contains aleurone grains up to 3 // 
in the outer layers and 7 /< in the inner layers, each grain containing sev- 
eral globoids and cr^'stalloids. 

Embryo. In the cotyledons there is only one layer of pahsade cells, 
and these cells are only slightly elongated. The aleurone grains are 
like those of the endosperm. 



2 26 OIL SEEDS. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Poppy-seeds are used in bread and pastries; poppy-cake, the by- 
product in the manufacture of poppy-oil, is fed to cattle. 

The ground material should be examined directly, also after soaking 
successively in i\ per cent soda solution and hydrochloric acid, or 
after treatment by Hebebrand's method. Fragments consisting of the 
first four layers, showing the ribs, and separate fragments of the layer 
of netted cells with brown contents, are readily identified (Fig. 182), 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Benecke (2); Berg (3); Bohmer (6, 10, 23); 
Collin (8); Hanausek, T. F. (16, 17, 48); Harz (18); Meyer, A. (27); Planchon et 
Collin (34); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Vogl (45). 
GODFRiN: Etude .histologique sur les tegument seminaux des Angiospermes. Soc. 

d. Sci. cl. Nancy, 1880, 109. 
Hockauf: Beobachtungen an Handelsmohnen. Chem. Ztg. 1903. 
Mach: Mohn und Mohnkuchen. Landw. Vers. -Stat. 1902, 57, 421. 
Meunier: Les teguments seminaux des Papaveracees. "La Cellule," Recueil de 

Cytologic et d'Histologie generale. 1891, 7, 377. 
]SIiCHALOWSKi: Beitrag zur Anatomic und Entwicklungsgeschichte von Pa paver 

somnijernm L., I Theil, Dissertation, Gratz, 1881. 
Tschirch : Entwicklungsgeschichtliche Studien. Schw. Woch. Chem. Pharm. 1897^ 

35, No. 17. 
WiNTON: The Anatomy of Certain Oil Seeds with Especial Reference to the IMicro- 

scopic Examination of Cattle Foods. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1903, 175. 

OLIVE. 

Of the vegetable oils commonly used as foods or in the arts, olive 
oil is the only one derived from the flesh of a fruit {Oka Eiiropea L., order 
Oleacea), 

Olives differ greatly in size and shape according to the variety. When 
ripe they are of a purple color. Morphologically the fruit is a drupe, 
corresponding in general structure to the peach and apricot. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Ripe olives preserved in brine furnish suitable material for studying 
all the histological elements except the salt-soluble aleurone grains of 
the endosperm and embr}'o. After soaking several days in alcohol, the 
fruit flesh is sufficiently hardened to permit the cutting of sections. These 
should be soaked for a time in ether to remove fat. 



OLIVE. 



227 



Pericarp, i. The Epicarp (Fig. 183) consists of thick walled polyg- 
onal cells about 25 //in diameter. This layer, as well as the mesocarp, 
contains a purple pigment, which, as Hanausek first noted, becomes in- 
tensely red on addition of concentrated sulphuric acid. 

2. The Mesocarp contains so much oil, that a clear idea of its struc- 
ture can be gained only after extraction with ether. 

In the outer portion the thin-walled cells are isodiametric, but in 
the middle and inner portion they are radially elongated. Distributed 




Fig. 183. Olive {Oka Europea). Epicarp and two stone cells of the mesocarp, seen from 

beneath. (Moeller.) 

here and there among this thin- walled tissue are stone cells (Fig. 183) 
remarkable for their fantastic shapes and especially for the curious 
beaked, T- or Y-shaped excrescences, occurring at the ends and angles. 
Being colorless, the stone cells are not readily found in water mounts, 
especially if the oil has not been extracted; but on treatment with alkali, 
they are colored a bright yellow. 

3. Endocarp (Fig. 184, a, m, i). The oblong stone consists of a 
dense conglomerate of sclerenchymatized tissues forming an envelope 
about the seed 1-3 mm. thick. In cross sections prepared by grinding 
on a whetstone (p. 13), the curious forms and grouping of the stone 
cells are clearly evident. These stone cells, like those of the mesocarp, 
are colorless and diverse in form, although lacking conspicuous excres- 
cences. In the outer and middle layers, both elongated and isodiametric 



228 



OIL SEEDS. 



forms occur, the former extending in all directions; in the inner layers 
all the cells are transversely elongated. Most of them are thick-walled, 
with exceedingly narrow lumen; occasional cells, however, have lumens 
broader than the walls. 

An innermost layer {en) composed of compressed thin-walled paren- 
chyma cells lines the cavity. 

Spermcderm (Fig. 184). i. The Epidermal Cells (ep) seen in sur- 
face view are highly characteristic, owing to their unequally swollen 




Fig. 184. Olive. Elements in surface view, p oil cells of mesocarp; a, m, i stone cells 
and fibers of endocarp; en inner layer of endocarp; ep outer epidermis of spermoderm; 
ea outer layer of endosperm ; E and e parenchyma of cotyledon ; sp spiral ves.sel. X i6o. 

(MOELLER.) 



and colorless walls. They are more or less elongated, often reaching 
a length of 300 [x. 

2. Parenchyma. Beneath the epidermis are several layers of thin- 
walled cells, through which ramify the numerous bundles. The cells 
in the outer layers are sharply polygonal; those further inward are rounded; 
the innermost are compressed. Numerous cr}'stals of various forms are 
the conspicuous contents. 

The Endosperm (Fig. 184) makes up the bulk of the seed. 

1. The Outer Layer {ea) consists of irregularly polygonal cells. Both 
the outer walls and the outer ends of the radial walls are greatly thickened, 
the latter, in surface viev/, showing distinct pores. 

2. Parenchyma. The remainder of the endosperm consists of thin- 
walled parenchyma, containing fat and proteid grains. 



OLIl^E. 229 

Embryo (E, e). Embedded in the axis of the endosperm Is the straight 
embryo, with oblong cotyledons several times the length of the radicle. 
The cells are smaller and thinner- walled than those of the endosperm, 
although containing the same materials. ■ 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Olive Pomace, consisting of the fruit pulp obtained as a by-product 
in the manufacture of ohve oil, is used to some extent as a cattle food, 
and also as an adulterant. 

Characteristic of this pulp are the grotesque stone cells (Fig. 183) 
becoming bright yellow on the addition of alkali, and the purple pigment 
of the epicarp and mesocarp, which changes to an intense red on addition 
of sulphuric acid. 

Olive St07ies are ground to a considerable extent in France as an 
adulterant for white pepper and other spices, and are shipped to other 
European countries, as well as to America. 

The stone cells (Fig. 184, a, m, i) are characterized by their colorless 
walls and contents, and by the bright yellow color produced by alkali, 
while those of pepper are yellow and often contain a brownish material. 
Especially characteristic are the large epidermal cells {ep) of the spermo- 
derm with swollen walls. The outer layer of the endosperm {ea) is also a 
striking element, but like the last, can be found only after diligent search. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (23); Hanausek, T. F. (10, 16, 17); 
Mace (26); Moeller (29); Schimper (37); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (45). 

Also see Bibliography of Pepper, p. 509. 
BoTTiNi: Sulla struttura dell'oliva. Nuov. giorn. bot. ital. 1889, 21, 369. 
Hanausek, T. F. : Ueber einige, gegenwartig im Wiener Handel vorkommende Gewiirz- 

falschungen. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters, Hyg. 1894, 8, 95. 
Landrin: Falsification du poivre a I'aide des grignons d'olive. Jour, pharm. 10, 194. 



PART IV. 

LEGUMES. 



# 



LEGUMES {Leguminosce). 

Plants of this family are characterized morphologically by their pods 
which are dehiscent on both sutures, physiologically by their power of 
assimilating atmospheric nitrogen through the agency of micro-organisms 
residing in the root tubercles, and anatomically by the structure of the 
spermoderm and starch grains. 

Most of the species of economic importance belong in the subfamily 
Papilionacece, so-called because of their butterfly-like flowers, of which 
the sweet pea is a type; a few species, however, including the genera 
Cassia and Ceratonia have more regular flowers and are classed in the 
subfamily CcesalpiniecB. 

The reserve material of the seed in many species is starchy, but in 
some species starch is absent, the reserve material being largely proteid 
matter or, in exceptional cases, cellulose. 

Microscopic Characters of Leguminous Seeds. 

Only the seeds of most , legumes are of interest to the food micro- 
copist, but notable exceptions are the green pods of snap beans eaten 
as a vegetable, the dried saccharine husks of the carob bean, serving as 
food for man and beast, and the shells of the peanut used as an adulterant 
of foods. 

The Spermoderm (Fig. i86, S) in all the species of economic im- 
portance has three layers, of which the two outer are one cell thick and 
the third is several cells thick. An inner epidermis is seldom evident. 
The hilum in some species is more or less elongated, and pierced through 
its major axis by a narrow sht. 

I. The Palisade Layer {pal), or outer epidermis, is of great diag- 
nostic value, not only in determining that a leguminous product is present, 
but also in naming the particular legume. The cells are prismatic, with 
thick walls, and in all the common species except tlie peanut and tonka 
bean are much higher than broad. The lumen in the inner portion is 
broader than in the outer, where it is usually a mere hne. 

On both sides of the hilum slit two layers of palisade cells are present 

233 



S34 



LEGUMES. 



(Fig, 185, p^ and p'^), while immediately beneath the sht in many species 
is a group of sclerenchyma cells with reticulated walls {Tri), which, 
according to Tschirch and Oesterle, probably serve to prevent the 
entrance of fungi. 

The "hght hne," a light-colored band of different refractive power 
from the rest of the layer, may be seen in cross section. This hne varies 



n,$p 




Fig. 185. Pea {Pistim arvense). Cross section of spermoderm through nsp hilum slit. 
p palisade epidermis with double layer of cells on both sides of the hilum sht; x sub- 
epidermal layer expanding beneath the hilum into a cushion of cells in which is em- 
bedded Tri a cluster of porous sclerenchyma cells. (Tschirch and Oesterle.) 

in its breadth and distance from the outer surface according to the species, 
and is of some importance in diagnosis. 

In surface view the cells are sharply polygonal, and often show radi- 
ating lines, due to the pores separating the ribs which make up the 
thickened walls. Focusing on the outer surface it has a shagreen-like 
appearance due to the strips which make up the thickened walls (Fig. 
190). 

After macerating with hot alkah or grinding, the paHsade cells be- 
come isolated and, owing to their rod-shaped form, assume a horizontal 
position. 

2. The Column Cells (sub) forming the subepidermal layer are com- 
monly hour-glass or I-shaped (Fig. 189) without evident contents, but 
in the common bean they are prismatic and contain well-formed crystals 
of calcium oxalate (Figs. 186 and 187). 



MICROSCOPIC CHARACTERS OF LEGUMINOUS SEEDS. 235 

In some species the walls of the hour-glass cells are ribbed, giving 
them in surface view the appearance of a sunburst. 

3. Parenchyma (p), usually of the spongy type, forms several layers, 
seen to advantage only in surface view. The character of the cells differs 
in different species and different layers of the same species. 

4. The Inner Epidermis when present, is of thin-walled cells. 
The Perisperm is commonly absent, and when present, as for ex- 
ample in the soy bean, is not of interest. 

The Endosperm in some species forms an obHterated layer (e.g. bean, 
pea, etc.), in others a dense, horny structure with thickened cell- walls 
(e.g. carob bean), and in others still a tissue with thick mucilaginous 
inner-cell membranes (e.g. fenugreek). 

Embryo (C). This is always relatively large and has large coty- 
ledons, while in seeds lacking a well-developed endosperm it makes up 
by far the greater part of the seed. The contents are proteid matter 
and fat together with, in many species, starch. 

Leguminous starch (am) is characterized by the large ellipsoidal 
grains with elongated, more or less branching hilum, although in some 
species the forms of the grains are irregular, and in the peanut and tonka 
bean are normally globular. 

The hilum is indistinct in some species, but is brought out clearly by 
polarized light. 

Chief Characters. 

Of chief value in recognizing a leguminous seed are the thick-walled 
palisade cells, the subepidermal cells (usually hour-glass shaped) and, 
when present, the ellipsoidal starch grains with elongated hilum. 

The parenchyma of the spermoderm is usually spongy. An endo- 
sperm with thickened walls is present in some species. 

Analytical Key to Leguminous Seeds. 

A. Seed contains starch. 

(a) Starch grains evident without treatment with reagents or by direct treatment 
with iodine solution; seed not aromatic. 
* Starch grains globular, under 15 /^ in diameter; palisade cells under 25 /^ high. 
I. Palisade cells in surface view over 25 fi broad with beaded walls and 

broad lumen Peanut (Arachis hypogaea). 

** Starch grains ellipsoidal, over 15 /^ long; palisade cells over 25 fi but under 
100 j« high. 
+ Palisade cells with flat outer ends. 

II Column cells prismatic containing crystals. 



236 LEGUMES. 

2. Palisade cells under 60 [i high; column cells thin-walled with large 

crystals Common Bean {Phaseolus vulgaris). 

3. Palisade cells over 60 /« high; column cells thick -walled with small 

crystals Spanish Bean (F. multiflorus). 

II II Column cells hour-glass shaped without crystals, under 20 p- high. 

4. Starch grains irregularly ellipsoidal up to 40 /' long. 

Common Pea (Pisum sativum, P. arvense). 

5. Starch grains irregularly ellpisoidal up to 90 /« long. 

Adzuki Bean {Phaseolus Mimgo, var. glaber)- 

6. Starch grains regularly ellipsoidal up to 35 p- long. 

China Bean (Vigna Catjang) . 
II II II Column cells hour-glass shaped without crystals, 25-35 [J- high. 

7. Starch grains irregularly ellipsoidal up to 65 fJ- long. 

Lima Bean {Phaseolus lunatus). 
+ + Palisade cells with rounded or pointed outer ends. 

8. Palisade cells under 45 /J- high with light line up to 10 /< broad. 

Lentil {Ervum Lens). 

9. Palisade cells 50-65 j« high with light line 10-15 {>■ broad. 

Vetch {Vicia saliva, V. villosa, V. hirsuta^- 
*** Starch grains ellipsoidal, over 15 /^ long; palisade cells over 100 /^ high. 
+ Column cells in one layer, hour-glass shaped. 

10. Starch grains up to 40 !>■ long Egyptian Bean {Dolichos Lablab). 

11. Starch grains up to 70 n long Horse Bean {Faha vulgaris). 

+ -\- Column cells in several layers, hour-glass shaped, simple in outer, com- 
pound in inner, layers. 

12. Starch grains up to 50 n long Jack Bean {Canavalia). 

**** Starch grains ellipsoidal over 15/! long; palisade cells variable in height 

(35-125 y). 

13. Palisade cells with rounded outer ends.- .Chick Pea {Cicer arietinum). 
(6) Starch grains evident only after treatment successively with a mi.xture of hot 

ether and alcohol and iodine solution; seed aromatic. 

14. Palisade cells over 50 [i high, under 25 /( broad, with dark contents; 

starch grains globular, under 10 /^. 

Tonka Bean {Coumarouna odorata). 
B. Seed contains no starch, or only traces. 

(a) Palisade cells pointed; column cells ribbed; endosperm mucilaginous. 

15. Palisade cells 30-40 [>■ high; column cells 15-45 /« broad. 

Lucerne {Mcdicago saliva). 

16. Palisade cells 60-75 J" high; column cells 30-75/' broad; seed aromatic. 

Fenugreek {Trigonella Fxnum-Gr cecum), 

17. Palisade cells 125-150 n high; column cells 35-75 /' high. 

Astragalus (-1. bceticus). 
(6) Palisade cells with flat or rounded outer ends; column cells not ribbed. 
* Palisade cells straight, under 100 /i high. 

18. Palisade cells 50-60 fi high, 6-15 f^ broad; column cells 35-50 ^ 

high; easily isolated Soy Bean {Glycine hispida). 



ANALYTICAL KEY TO LEGUMINOUS SEEDS. 237 

19. Palisade cells 60-75 /* high, 3-7 11 broad; column cells 16-25 /^ high, 

endosperm with enormously thickened walls. 

Coffee Cassia (C. occidentalis) . 
** Palisade cells straight, over 100 n high. 

20. Palisade cells 150 ^ high, blunt spindle-shaped after isolation in 

water Soudan Coffee (Parkia). 

21. Palisade cells 170-250 /< high, with swollen outer walls; endosperm 

with enormously thickened walls; brown wrinkled bodies in 
mesocarp, becoming violet on treating with alkali. 

Carob Bean (Ceratonia Siliqua). 
*** Palisade cells geniculate, over 100 /x high. 

22. Outer f of palisade cells straight; inner J geniculate with dark 

contents; epidermis of cotyledons porous. 

Yellow Lupine {Lupinus liUeus). 

23. Outer f of palisade cells straight, inner \ geniculate with colorless 

contents; light line 2-6 n; epidermis of cotyledon not porous. 

White Lupine (L. albus). 

24. Outer i of palisade cells straight, inner i geniculate with dark 

contents; light line narrow; epidermis of cotyledons porous. 

Blue Lupine {L. angustijolius). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Beck: Die Samenschale einiger Leguminosen. Sitzb. K. K. Akad. zu Wien, 1878, 79. 
Chalon : La graine de Legumineuses. Mem. et Pub. Soc Sci., Arts et Let. du Hainaut. 

1S75, 55- 
GuiGNARD: Embryogenie des Legumineuses. Ann. des Sc. nat., Bot. 1882, Ser. VI 

12, 63. 
Mattirolo e Buscalioni : Ricerche anatomofisiologiche sul tegumenti seminali delle 

Papilionacee. Reprint from Memorie Accad. Szienze Torino. Ser. II, 42, 1892. 
Nadelmann: Ueber Schleimendosperm der Leguminosensamen. Ber. deutsch. Bot. 

Ges. 1889, 248. 
Pammel: On the Structure of the Spermoderm of Several Leguminous Seeds. Bull. 

Torr. Eot. C. 1886, 17. 
Pammel: Anatomical characters of the seeds of Leguminos^, chiefly genera of Gray's 

Manual. Transact. Acad. Sc. St. Louis, 1899, 9, 91. 
Pfafflin: Untersuchungen iiber Entwicklungsgeschichte, Bau und Function der 

Nabelspalte und der darunter liegenden Trachiedeninsel verschiedener praktisch 

wichtiger Papilionaceen-Samen. Inaug.-Diss., Bern, 1897. 
ScHiPS: Ueber die Cuticula und die Anskleidung der Intercellularen in den Samen- 

schalen der Papilionaceen. Ber. deutsch. bot. Ges. 1893, 11, 311. 
ScHLEiDEN: Beitrage zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Blutenteile bei den Leguminosen 

und iiber das Albumen, insbesondere der Leguminosen. 1838. 
SCEOBiscHEVV^KY : Recherches sur I'embryogenie des Papilionacees. Bull. Congr. 

Internat. Bot. et Hortic. Petersburg, 1884, 207. 
VAN TiEGHEM: Observations sur la legerite et la structure de Tembryon de quelques 

Legumineuses. Mem. de Soc. Sc. nat. de Cherbourg, 19. 



238 



LEGUMES, 



COnnON BEAN. 

The larger part of the dried beans used as food in Europe and America 
are the seeds of Phaseolus vulgaris Metzger, now regarded by Wittmack 
as a native of tropical America. To the same species belong the edible- 
podded varieties — the so-called snap- or string-beans — also certain twining 
varieties cultivated for the seeds. 

The hemitropous seeds are more or less kidney-shaped, although 
the ratio of length, breadth and thickness varies greatly in the different 




^}r^$^ 



Fig. 186. Common Bean (Phaseolus vul- 
garis). Cross section of outer portion of 
seed. 5' spermoderm consists of pal pali- 
sade cells with / light line, sub subepi- 
dermal layer containing calcium oxalate 
crystals, and p spongy parenchyma; C 
cotyledon; ep epidermis of cotyledon; al 
aleurone grains; am starch grains. X160. 

(WiNTON.) 



Fig. 187. Common Bean. Elements of 
spermoderm in surface view. p pali- 
sade cells; s subepidermal cells with crys- 
tals; m spongy parenchyma. X 300. 

(MOELLER.) 



varieties, some being nearly globular, others much elongated, and still 
others strongly flattened. In color they are white, black, red, brown, or 
mottled. The elliptical hilum is situated in the middle of one of the 
narrow sides. A narrow slit follows the major axis of the hilum, piercing 
the outer of the underlying tissues. Near one end of the hilum is the 
micropyle and near the other end is a small wart. The raphe enters 
the seed at a point near this wart. 



COMMON BEAN. 239 

HISTOLOGY. 

The seed consists of a large embrj'o closely covered by a thin, brittle 
spermoderm. 

Spermoderm. i. The Palisade Cells (Fig. 186, pal; Fig, 187, p), as 
may be seen in cross section, are upward of 60 /« long, with a narrow light 
line adjoining the cuticle. In the outer portion the cavity is narrow, 
but broadens toward the inner end. The color of the bean is determined 
by the color of the contents of these cells. Beneath the hilum there are 
two layers of palisade cells, both of which are pierced by the hilum sht. 

2. The Column Cells (Fig. 186, sub; Fig. 187, s) in this species are not 
hour-glass shaped as in the pea and many other legumes, but are pris- 
matic without intercellular spaces. The walls are moderately thick, and 
swell considerably in water or alkali. Each cell contains one, or rarely 
two, large monoclinic crystals of calcium oxalate, which nearly fills the 
cavity. The presence of large crystals in the column cells is characteristic 
of this species. Beneath the hilum this layer is absent. 

3. Spongy Parenchyma (Fig. 186, p; Fig. 187, m). The cells are 
largest and have the thickest walls in the outer layers. In the inner layers 
they have long, narrow arms and exceedingly thin walls. At the hilum 
this layer forms a thick cushion. 

Embryo. (Fig. 186, C; Fig. 188). The two large cotyledons form the 
bulk of the seed. Fat and proteids are present throughout, as is also 
starch, except in the epidermal cells. 

In the outer epidermis (ep) the cells are isodiametric, in the inner 
epidermis they are tangentially elongated as in the pea. 

The cells of the Mesophyl are large (often 100 //), and have thick 
(4-9 p.) walls with distinct pores. Intercellular spaces of moderate size 
occur at the angles. 

The starch grains vary up to 60 n in length, the larger grains being, 
for the most part, ellipsoidal or kidney-shaped, seldom irregularly swollen 
as in the pea. A conspicuous, branching cleft, appearing black because 
of inclosed air, is almost always present. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Beans usually reach the consumer whole, and therefore unadulterated. 

Bean Meal is a comparatively rare article of commerce, used chiefly 
as a cattle food. Coarsely ground beans have been employed as adul- 
terants of coffee, although less often than peas and other legumes. 

The starch (Fig. 186, am) is distinguished from pea-starch by the 



240 



LEGUMES. 



absence of irregularly swollen forms, and the presence of a distinct 
branching cleft in each large grain. The cell-walls of the endosperm 
are thick and conspicuously porous, whereas in the pea they are usually 
thinner and indistinctly porous. 

Bean Hulls serve as a cattle food and adulterant. In bean products 




Fig. 188. 



Common Bean. Cross section of cotyledon showing starch grains. 

(MOELLEE.) 



X300. 



containing the hulls, the crystal-bearing column cells (Fig. 187,5) furnish 
a ready means of identification. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (6); Greenish (14); Hanausek, T. 
F. (10); Harz (18); Mace (26); Moeller (29); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40);' Villiers et 
Collin (42); Vogl (45); Wittmack (10). 

Gulliver: On the crystals in the Testa and Pericarp of several Orders of Plants 
and in the other Parts of the Order of Leguminosese. Monthly Micros. Jour. 1873, 

259- 
Haberlandt: Ueber die Entwicklungsgeschichte und den Bau der Samenschale bei der 

Gattung Phaseolus. Sitzb. d. k. k. Akad. zu Wien. 1877, 75, 2)3- 
KOEHLER: Erbsen, Bohnen, Wicken und deren MuUereiprodukte. Landw. Vers.-Stat. 

1901, 55, 401. 
TscmRCH: Ueber Starkemehlanalysen. Arch. d. Pharm. 1884, 22, 921. 

SPANISH BEAN. 

Of the several varieties of Spanish bean {Phaseolus multif^orus Willd.) 
in cultivation, the scarlet runner and Dutch case-knife bean are the best 
known. The scarlet runner is grown partly for the brilliant scarlet flowers, 
and partly for the flattened black and pink mottled seeds. The Dutch 
case-knife bean has white flowers and seeds. 



ADZ UK I BEAN. LIMA BEAN.. 241 

HISTOLOGY. 

In histological structure these beans are much like the common bean, 
but the palisade cells are longer (60-75 /O and the column-cells have 
thicker walls and contain smaller crystals. Although the column cells 
are prismatic without intercellular spaces, the radial walls are thickest 
in the middle and diminish in thickness toward both ends, the cavity 
being, as a consequence, hour-glass-shaped. The cell structure of the 
embryo and the starch grains are practically the same as in the common 
bean. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Harz (18); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40). 

ADZUKI BEAN. 

The adzuki bean (P. Mungo var. glaher Roxbg.) is highly esteemed 
in Japan as food for man and has been introduced into the United States. 
Other varieties of this species are also cultivated in the East. 

The plant yields a seed 8-10 mm. long, of a rich wine color. 

Characteristic of this seed is the narrow, elongated hilum 2-3 mm. 

long. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Spermoderm. i. The Palisade Cells are 75 /< high, 6-15 /« wide, and 
contain a reddish pigment. 

2. The Column Cells are hour-glass-shaped like those of the pea. 
They are 14-20 ,n high and 8-20 /< wide. 

3. The Parenchyma is much the same as in the common bean. 
Embryo. The thin-walled cells contain larger starch grains than 

any other common legume (often 90 /<). In addition to the usual ellip- 
soidal grains, trefoil and irregular grains, such as occur in the pea, are 
numerous. Their large size serves to distinguish them from pea-starch 
and their form as well as size from other leguminous starches. 

LiriA BEAN. 

The small seeded Lima or Sieva bean (Phaseolus lunatiis L.) and 
the true or large-seeded Lima bean (P. limatus var. macrocar pus Benth.) 
are natives of South America, but are grown throughout the Western 
Hemisphere, the seed being eaten as a vegetable either green or dried. 
The flattened white seeds of the true Lima bean are 20-25 "^^- ^or^g ai"id 
about half as wide. 



2 42 ■ LEGUMES. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Spermoderm. i. The Palisade Cells are 60-80 /« long and 12-20 /t 
wide. 

2. Column Cells. These are quite unlike the column cells of the 
other members of this genus. Their hour-glass form distinguishes them 
from the corresponding cells of the common and Spanish bean, and 
their greater height (25-35 /O from the last named and all the other 
species of Phaseolus here described. The cells are 14-35 /' wide. 

3. Spongy Parenchyma. The outer and innermost layers contain 
small cells, the middle layers large cells. 

Embryo. The moderately thick-walled cells contain ellipsoidal, reni- 
form and trefoil-shaped grains, which are, on the average longer (up 
to 65 p.) and broader than in the common bean. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Harz (18). 

PEA. 

The field pea (Pisum arvense L.) is grown both as a forage plant and 
for the production of mature seeds; the garden pea (P. sativum L.) 
only as a vegetable. 

Peas of the former species are smooth, nearly spherical, and of a 
buff color; those of the latter species are either smooth or wrinkled. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The Spermoderm (Figs. 189-192) is thin and brittle. The structure 
at the hilum is shown in Fig. 185; in other parts it is as follows: 

1. The Palisade Cells (p) are 60-100 ,« high, a narrow light line 
immediately adjoining the cuticle. In the inner portion of each cell 
the cavity is broad and wavy in contour. 

2. The Column Cells (/), of typical hour-glass form, are conspicuous 
both in cross section and in surface view. They never contain crystals. 
On heating pieces of the hull with dilute alkah and pressing with the 
cover-glass, these cells may be isolated, the hour-glass form being espe- 
cially striking after this treatment. They vary up to 20 /< in height. 

3. Spongy Parenchyma (Fig. 189, m; Fig. 192). The cells decrease 
in size from without inward. 

Embryo, i. The Epidermal Cells (Fig. 193, cp) of the cotyledons 



PEA. 



243 



are tangentially elongated and arranged end to end in rows. They 
contain aleurone grains and fat, but no starch. 

2. The Parenchyma (Figs. 193 and 194), making up the remainder 
of the cotyledons, is composed of large cells with moderately thick, non- 
porous walls, with intercellular spaces 
at the angles. Usually, but not al- 
ways, the walls are thinner than in the 
bean and the intercellular spaces are 
larger, often extending from one angle 
to another. 

The Starch Grains (Fig. 193) are 
commonly smaller than in the bean 
(seldom over 40 /<) and among ellip- 
soidal, reniform, and globular forms, 
occur many which are characterized 
by irregular, rounded protuberances. 
As a rule, comparatively few grains 
have distinct clefts. 




Fig. iSg. Pea {Pi sum arvense). Cross 
section of spermoderm. c cuticle; 
p palisade cells with * light line; t 
hour-glass cells; sub subepidermal 
layer; m spongy parenchyma. X160. 

(MOELLER.) 



DIAGNOSIS. 

Whole Peas, as well as pea hay, are highly prized in many regions 
as cattle food. Roasted and flattened whole peas are used as substitutes 
or adulterants for coffee. 

Split peas, freed from hulls, are prepared for use in soups and other 
cuhnan^ articles. 

Pea Flour, because of its high nutritive value, is an ingredient of 
many dietary preparations for infants and invalids, as well as for soldiers 
and others requiring a nutritious and palatable food in a concentrated 
form. 

Many of the starch grains (Fig. 193, st) have irregular swollen pro- 
tuberances, a phenomenon of no little value in dis- 
criminating between this and bean-starch. The 
starch of the adzuki bean also displays this pecu- 
liarity. Clefts in the grains are indistinct or want- 
ing. The parenchyma of the cotyledons is seldom 
as thick as in the bean and shows much less dis- 
tinct pores. The individual cells are readily sepa- 
rated from one another through the middle 
lamella, especially after treatment with alkali. This latter treatment, in 



C^"\^ ^-\ ''V^ 



Fig. 190. Pea. Pali- 
sade cells in surface 
view showing the 
outer surface. X300. 

(MoELLER.) 



244 



LEGUMES. 



the case of roasted peas, dissolves out the starch grains, leaving a char- 
acteristic skeleton of colored proteid material. 

Pea Hulls are utilized as a cattle food and an adulterant. A 




Fio. 191. Pea. Elements of spermoderm in surface view, p palisade cells; t hour-glass 
cells (subepidermallayer); e parenchyma. X160. (Mof.ller.) 

common coffee adulterant in the United States consists of pea hulls 
made into pellets with molasses and other ingredients. 




Fig. 192. Pea, Outer layers of spongy parenchyma, i intercellular space; 5 porous 
membrane at end of arm. (Moeller.) 

The elements of the hull may be studied in section (Fig. 189), or 
in surface viev^^ (Fig. 191) after scraping with a scalpel. Isolation of 



PEA. LENTIL. 



245 



the palisade and column cells is accomplished by judicious heating with 
dilute alkali and side wise pressure with the cover-glass. The column 
cells (/) are hour-glass in form, without crystals; whereas in the com- 
mon bean they are prismatic, with large crystals of calcium oxalate. 




Fig. 193. Pea. Cross section of cotyledon. 
ep epidermis, p parenchyma containing 
5< starch grains. X160. (Moeller.) 



•Fig. 194. Pea. Cotyledon tissues in sur- 
face view, ep epidermis; st starch pa- 
renchyma. X160. (Moeller.) 



The height of the palisade cells (60-100 /<) and column cells (up to 20 /') 
is of importance in diagnosis. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (6, 23); Greenish (14); Hanausek, 
T. F. (10); Harz (18); Mace (26); Moeller (29, 32); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Vil- 
liers et Collin (42); Vogl (45); Wittmack (10). 

Sempolowski: Ueber den Bau der Schale landwirthschaftlich wichtiger Samen. Landw. 
Jahrb. 1874, 3, 823. 

LENTIL. 

Lentils, the seeds of Lens esculenta Moench (Ervum Lens L.), have 
been used in Oriental countries as food for man since very ancient times. 
Esau sold his birthright for a mess of pottage made from this seed. At 
present the plant is cultivated chiefly in the countries bordering on the 
Mediterranean. 

The Latin word "lens," meaning primarily lentil, was afterward 
applied by the philosophers to the biconvex magnifying glass because of 
its resemblance to the lentil in shape. The seeds are gray-brown or red 
in color and 5-7 mm. in diameter. The long and narrow hilum, as well 
as the micropyle and raphe, are on the narrow edge. 



246 



LEGUMES. 



HISTOLOGY 
The Spermoderm (Fig. 195, S) is i 
same as in the pea. 



mm. thick with layers much the 



The Palisade Cells (Fig. 




195, pal) are 45 n high, 8 /< broad, have 
rounded outer ends, over which the cuticle 
is extended in the form of blunt-pointed 
papillae. A light Hne nearly 10 /i broad 
lies directly beneath the cuticle, but the 
remainder of the walls are yellow-brown. 




Fig. 195. Lentil {Lens esculenta). 
Outer portion of seed in cros£ sec- 
tion. S spermoderm consists of pal 
palisade cells with / light line, sub 
hour - glass cells (subepidermal 
layer) s,nd p spongy parenchyma; 
c cotyledon with ep epidermis and 
flw starch cells. Xi6o. (Winton.) 



3. Spongy Parenchyma (p) 
cells without conspicuous interc 



Fig. 196. Lentil. Hour-glass 
cells (subepidermal layer) 
of spermoderm in surface 

view. X 1 60. (MOELLER.) 

2. The Column Cells (sub) of hour- 
glass form are 18-35 /" broad and 12- 
22 n high. An irregular brown lump 
nearly fills each cell (Fig. 196). 

The outer layers consist of very small 
ellular spaces. In the middle layers the 




Fig. 107. Lentil Starch. X300. (Moeller.) 

cells are large, some of them containing a brown substance showing the 
reaction for tannins. 



CHINA BEAN. 



247 



Embryo (Fig. 195, C). The thin- walled cells contain starch grains 
(Fig. 197) somewhat smaller than those in the bean or pea, the largest 
being but 40 /i long. In form they are mostly ellipsoidal, although forms 
with irregular excrescences similar to those occurring in the pea, are not 

infrequent. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Ground lentils are distinguished from bean and pea products by the 
smaller diameter (maximum 8 [i) of the pahsade cells (Fig. 195, pal), 
their rounded or blunt-pointed outer ends, and the broader Hght Hne. 
The starch grains (Fig. 197) are also smaller, 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (6, 23); Greenish (14); Harz (18); 

Mace (26); Moeller (29, 32); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42) ; Vogl (45). 

Beck: Vergl. Anatomie der Samen von Vicia und Ervum. Sitzb. Wiener Akad. 1873, 77. 

Sempolowski: Ueber den Bau der Schale landwirthschaftlich wichtiger Samen. Landw. 

Jahrb. 1874, 3, 823. 

CHINA BEAN. 

Varieties of Vigna Catjang Walp (F. Sinensis Endl., Dolichos Sinensis 
L.) are highly prized in the East for their seeds, and in the Southern 
States as a forage and green manuring crop. 

Although known in America as the cow 
pea or black pea, the plant is more cor- 
rectly a bean, and the names China bean 
and black-eyed bean in vogue in Europe 
are more appropriate. 

Black, white with black eyes, yellow, 
red, brown, and mottled seeded varieties 
are in cultivation, the size of the some- 
what flattened, kidney-shaped seeds varying 
from 6-10 mm. 



HISTOLOGY. 

The Spermoderm (Fig. 198) consists of: 
(i) a layer of palisade cells {pal) 60-75 J" 
high and 6-18 p. broad; (2) a layer of 
column-cells {suh) 9-15 p. high and 9-25 fi 
broad; (3) several compressed layers of 
spongy parenchyma {p). 




Fig. 198. China Bean {Vigna cat- 
jang). Outer portion of seed in 
cross section. S spermoderm con- 
sists of pal palisade cells with I 
light line, sub hour-glass cells 
(subepidermal layer), and p spongy 
parenchyma; C cotyledon with ep 
epidermis and am starch cells. 

X160. (WiNTON.) 



248 



LEGUMES. 



The Cotyledons (C) contain starch grains much like those of the 
common bean though somewhat smaller (maximum 35 a). 



DIAGNOSIS. 

The China bean has smaller starch grains (Fig. 198, am) than most 
of the common legumes. Compared with the large grains of the Lima 
or the adzuki bean, this characteristic is especially marked. The 
spermoderm has much the same structure as in the last-named species. 
The column cells {suh) are hour-glass-shaped. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Harz (18); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40). 

SOY BEAN. 

Numerous varieties of the soy or soja bean {Glycine hisplda Maxim, 
Soja hispida Moench), natives of the Orient, are grown in China and 

Japan for the highly nutritious seed, and 
in Europe and America for forage as well 
as for the seed. 

The yellow, brown or black , seed 
(5-10 mm.) in some varieties is nearly 
globular, in others slightly flattened and 
elongated. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Marked features of the soy bean are 
the high column cells of the spermo- 
derm, the presence of an endosperm 
and the absence of starch in the coty- 
ledons. 

The Spermoderm (Fig. 199) is closely 
united with the layers of the endo- 
sperm. 

I. The Palisade Cells (pal) of this 
seed are of about the same height 
(50-60 /<) and diameter (6-15 /'.) as 




Fig. 199. Soy Bean {Glycine hispi- 
da). Outer portion of seed in 
cross section. 5 spermoderm con- 
sists of pal palisade cells with / 
light line, sub hour-glass cells (sub- 
epidermal layer), and p paren- 
chyma; E endosperm consists of 
aleurone cells and compressed 
cells; C cotyledon, with ep eyji- 
dermis and al aleurone cells. 

X160. (WiNTON.) 



those of the common bean and, like 
the latter, may or may not have colored contents, according to the color 
of the seed. 



so Y BEAN. EG YP TIAN BE A N. 2 49 

2. Column Cells {sub). This layer is of about the same thickness 
as the palisade layer, being thicker than in any of the other common 
legumes. The hour-glass or I-shaped cells are usually 35-50 a high, 
but about the hilum they often reach 150 /(. In width they vary from 
16-36 /(. Since the cells have a marked tendency to separate from the 
adjoining layers and from each other, isolated cells may usually be found 
in considerable numbers in surface mounts obtained by scraping the inner 
surface of the hull, or in the ground seed. 

3. The Spongy Parenchyma (p) is much compressed and presents no 
characteristic features. 

An Endosperm (E) consisting of a single layer of moderately thick- 
walled aleurone cells (15-45 ,«) and obliterated cells, marks this seed as 
an exception among legumes. The aleurone cells as seen in surface 
view arc rectangular or polygonal with proteid content. 

Embryo (C). The thin- walled cells contain large aleurone grains, 
sometimes 25 /-( in diameter. • Starch is entirely absent. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The absence of starch, the presence of long (35-50 u) I-shaped column 
cells (Fig. 199, sub) readily isolated from the surrounding tissues, and 
the presence of an endosperm layer (E), furnish ready means for the 
identification of this seed. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (6. 23); Harz (18); Moeller (29); 
Tschirch u. Oesterle (40). 

Hanausek, T. F.: Die Sojabohne. Irmischia II,. 1882, No. 7, 44. 
Hanausek, T. F.: Ueber das \'orkommen von Starkemehl in der Sojabohne. Ztschr. 

allg. osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1884, 474. 
Harz: Ueber den Starkegehalt der Sojabohne. Ztschr. alig. osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 

1885, 40. 
Trimble: The Soja Bean. Amer. Jour. Pharm. 1897, 69. 

EGYPTIAN BEAN. 

Seeds of the Egyptian or hyacinth bean {DoHchos Lahlah L., Lablab 
vulgaris Savi.) are much eaten in the Tropics. 

In macroscopic structure they are characterized by their flattened 
form and large hilum. 



250 



LEGUMES. 



HISTOLOGY. 

Strong!)^ developed in this species are: (i) The Palisade Cells, 12$ fi 
or more high; (2) The Column Cells of hour-glass form, 35-55 n high and 

of about the same width. The Spongy 
Parenchyma is not remarkable. The 
Starch Grains vary up to 40 pt in length. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Harz 
(18); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40). 

HORSE BEAN. 

The name bean, now largely applied 
to plants belonging to the genus Phaseo- 
lus, formerly was applied almost exclu- 
sively to the varieties of Faba vulgaris 
Moench (Vicia Faba L.) of which the 
horse bean, also known as the broad or 
Windsor bean, is one of the best known 
examples. Beans of this species were cul- 
tivated by the ancient Egyptians, Tro- 
jans, Greeks, and Romans, as well as by 
the lake dwellers and other prehistoric 
races. 

It is not remarkable that so ancient 
a plant should have numberless varieties 
widely different, especially as to the size. 

The best 




Fig. 200. Horse Bean (Faba vulgaris). 
Outer portion of seed in cross sec- 
tion. 5 spermoderm consists of pal 

palisade cells with / light line, sub shape, and color of the seeds 



L°d7tinS'patXrcS: known varieties have sHghtly flattened 
don With e/> epidermis and «7« starch seeds 8-12 mm. long and two-thirds as 
cells. Xi6o. (WiNTON.) 1 J rru • i * j i M 

broad, ihe conspicuous elongated hilum 

is not on the side of the seed, but at one of the ends. 



HISTOLOGY. 

Spermoderm (Fig. 200). The pahsade and column cells are remark- 
able for their large size. 

I. The Palisade Cells (pal) are 150-175 /« long and 12-20 /i broad. 
A light line 20-25 ^ broad, directly beneath the cuticle, is distinguishable, 



HORSE BEAN. SPRING VETCH. 251 

although the whole outer half of the layer is colorless. The cell-walls 
of the inner portion are yellow-brown. 

2. Column Cells {sub). This layer has strongly developed cells, 
35-50 a high and 35-60 ji broad. They are hour-glass-shaped with a 
cavity only shghtly constricted in the middle. The walls are rather thick. 

3. Parenchyma (p). The outer layers are of large cells with few 
intercellular spaces; the middle layers are of similar cells with deep 
brown contents; the inner layers are of compressed spongy parenchyma. 

Embryo (C). The isodiametric cells, with non-porous walls similar 
to those of the pea, contain starch grains (am) up to 70 /< in length. 
Broadly ellipsoidal grains, many scarcely longer than broad, also irreg- 
ular forms, are common. The hilum is often indistinct. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The enormous height of the palisade cells (Fig. 200, pal) and their 
broad light line, also the large column cells (sub), serve to identify this 
seed in powder form. x\lthough the starch grains (am) are of large size, 
and more nearly circular in outline than in .most common legumes, too 
much dependence should not be placed on this distinction. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (6, 23); Harz (18); Mace (26); 
Tschirch u. Oesterle (40). 
GODFRIN: Etude histologique sur les tegument seminaux des Angiospermes. Soc. d. 

Sci. d. Nancy. 1880, 109. 
Sempolowski: Ueber den Bau der Schale landwirthschaftlich wichtiger Samen. 
Landw. Jahrb. 1874, 3, 823. 

SPRING VETCH. 

The spring vetch or tare (Vicia saliva L.) has been cultivated since 
prehistoric times both for green fodder and seed, the latter being used 
to some extent for human food. The tare of the scriptures is not this 
plant, but darnel (Lolium temulentum). 

Seeds of the spring vetch are dark colored, nearly globular, and 5 mm. 
or less in diameter. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The Spermoderm of the vetch and lentil are much alike in structure. 
I. The Palisade Cells are characterized by the rounded or blunt- 
pointed outer ends, the thick cuticle, the broad light Hne (10-15 a) and 



252 



LEGUMES. 



the dark color and moderate thickness of the walls in the inner portion 
of the layer. They are 50-65 a high and 6-10 a broad. 

2. The Column Cells (13-25 n high, 22-40 /( broad) are hour-glass- 
shaped and contain a dark material. 

2^.' Parenchyma. This tissue is not spongy, but true parenchyma 
without marked intercellular spaces. The middle layers contain a dark, 
tannin-like material. 

Embryo, The non-porous walled cells contain ellipsoidal and irregu- 
larly-shaped starch grains each with a more or less distinct cleft. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Both the lentil and vetch have pahsade cells with rounded or blunt- 
pointed outer walls, but in the latter seed these cells are somewhat higher 
and have a broader hght line (10-15 ,".). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (6); Harz (18); Mace (26); 
Tschirch u. Oesterle (40). 
Beck: Vergl. Anatomie dcr Samen von Vicia unci Ervum. Sitzb. Wiener Akad. 1873, 

77. 
Sempolowski: Ueber den Bau der Schale landwirthschaftlich wichtiger Samen. Landw. 

Jahrb. 1874, 3, 823. 

WINTER VETCH. 

The winter or hairy vetch {Vicia villosa Roth.), like the spring vetch, 
is a common forage plant in Europe and parts of 
the East. 

Although the seeds are somewhat smaller than 
those of the latter plant, they have practically the 
same structure. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer {23); Harz 
(18). 

HAIRY VETCH. 




Fig. 201. Hiiirv \'etch 



x\mong the leguminous plants infesting Euro- 
pean grain fields the hairy vetch {Vicia hirsuta Koch) 
{Vicia hirsuta). a jg one of the commonest, the seeds often occurring in 

fruit branch; h seed, 

natural size; c and Considerable quantity in the grain. 

(NobVeO ''"^'''■^^'^- The seeds are globular, about 2.5 mm. long, with 

dark spots on a somewhat lighter field (Fig. 201). 

The palisade cells are about 50 /< high, the spool-shaped column 



YELLOIV LUPINE. 



■sz 



cells about 15 /«. Starch grains up to 30 /< long fill the cells of the coty 
ledons. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Vogl (45). 



YELLOW LUPINE. 

Lupines are cultivated chiefly for forage or green manuring, but in 
parts of Europe the seeds are used for hu- 
man food, and especially as a substitute 
for coffee. 

The common yellow lupine {Lupinus 
luieiis L.) has a flattened, kidney-shaped 
seed 6-9 mm. long and 5-7 mm. wide, 
with black spots on a light background. 
The round hilum is not situated in the 
cove, but in tlic center of one of the lobes. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Spermoderm (Fig, 202, S\ Fig. 203). 
I. Tlic Palisade Cells (Fig. 202, pal; Fig. 
203, p) are 140-170 /« long and 8-18 ,n 
broad, with rounded outer ends. The 
roughened cuticle is 3-6 ft thick and the 
narrow underlying light line 2-6 a broad. 
The outer portion of each cell for two- 
thirds its entire length has straight walls 
and a narrow cavity; the inner portion 
has two slight bends in opposite direc- 
tions. Those cells lying underneath the 
dark-colored spots on the surface of the 
seed contain a dark substance situated 
chiefly in the inner portion of the cavity. 

2. The Column Cells (Fig. 202, sub; 
Fig. 203, t) are 35-70 //. high, 25-50 u 
broad, hour-glass- or spool-shaped, much 

3. Parenchyma (Fig. 202, p; Fig. 203, 
and middle layers are sharply polygonal 
which appear distinctly beaded in surface 
up the inner layers. 




Fig. 202. Yellow Lupine {Lupinus 
iitleus). Outer layers of seed in 
cross section. .9 spermoderm con- 
sists of pal palisade cells with I 
light line, sub hour-glass cells (sub- 
epidermal layer), and p spongy 
parenchyma with jv fibro-vascular 
Ijundle; C cotyledon with ep epi- 
dermis and «/ aicurone cells. X i6o. 

(WiNTON.) 

constricted in the middle. 

sch). The cells in the outer 
with thin, finely-porous walls, 
view. Compressed cells make 



254 



LEGUMES. 



Embryo (C). As noted by Bohmcr, tlie outer epidermal cells of 
the cotyledons are finely porous; these pores, hoAvever, are confined 
to the radial walls and the edges of the tangential walls. 

The remainder of the cotyledons consists of isodiametric cells with 
much swollen, porous walls, often 15-25 n thick. This thickening is 
especially marked at the angles. Ovoid aleurone grains up to 20 /i, often 
containing large crystalloids, are the only visible cell-contents. Starch 
is entirely absent. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

All the common lupines have high palisade cells (Fig. 202, suh), 
geniculate in their inner portions, hour-glass-shaped subepidermal cells 




Fig. 203. Yellow Lupine. Elements of spermo- Fig. 204. Yellow Lupine. Collen- 

derm in surface view, p palisade cells; / hour- chyma cells of cotyledon with aleu- 

glass cells ^subepidermal layer) showing contour rone grains. /> porous wall. X300. 

of base and constriction; sch spongy paren- (Moeller.) 
chyma. X160. (Moeller.) 

{sub) and thick-walled cotyledon cells containing aleurone grains (c/), 
but no starch. 

In the yellow lupine, the outer two-thirds of each palisade cell (Fig. 
202, pal) is straight (distinction from blue lupine), and the inner genic- 
ulate portion often contains dark contents (distinction from white 
lupine). The sharply polygonal cells in the outer layers of the paren- 
chyma of the spermoderm, as well as in the epidermis of the cotyle- 
dons, are distinctly porous (distinction from white lupine). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 



See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (23); Harz (18). 
Sempolowski : Ueber den Bau der Schale landwirthschaftlich wichtiger Samen 
Landw. Jahrb. 1874, 3, 823. 



IVHITE LUPINE. BLUE LUPINE. 255 



WHITE LUPINE. 

The white-flowered lupine {Lupinus alhus L.) has light -colored, 
flattened, almost lenticular seeds somewhat larger (often 10 mm.) than 
those of the yellow and blue species. A depression is present in the 
center of each of the flat sides. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The palisade cells and column cells are of the same size and structure 
as those of the yellow lupine, except that the hght Hne of the palisade 
cells is broader (15-20 ix) and the contents are colorless. The cells of 
the spermoderm and the outer epidermis of the cotyledons are not evi- 
dently porous. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Harz (18); Moeller (29); Vogl (45). 
GODFRIN: Etude histologique sur les tegument seminaux des Angiospermes . Soc. d. 

Sci. d. Nancy. 1880, 109. 
Sempolowski: Ueber den Bau der Schale landwirthschaftlich wichtiger Samen. 

Landw. Jahrb. 1874, 3, 823. 

BLUE LUPINE. 

The type of Liipinus angustijolius L. has mottled seeds; the variety 
leucospermus, white seeds. Both have blue flowers. The seeds are 
rounded reniform, 5-7 mm. long. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The structure corresponds with that of the yellow lupine, except as 
regards the pahsade layer, which has a distinct hne of demarcation a 
little less than half way between the outer and inner end. In the outer 
portion the walls are straight, of even texture, and the cavity is without 
contents; in the inner portion the walls are geniculate, of uneven tex- 
ture, and the ragged cavities contain a dark material near the hne of de- 
marcation. The light line is narrow, as in the yellow lupine, but the 
outer end of the cell is not rounded. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674; Hanausek, T. F. (ro); Harz (18); Vogl (45). 
Gtjnt)RISEr: Ueber ein Kaffee.surrogat aus den Samen der blauen Lupine (Lupinus 

angustijolius). Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1892, 6, 373. 
Sempolowski: Ueber den Bau der Schale landwirthschaftlich wichtiger Samen. 

Landw. Jahrb. 1874, 3, 823. 



256 



LEGUMES, 



CHICK PEA. 

The East Indians prepare from the seeds of the chick pea (Cicer 
arietinum L.) various articles of daily food, as also do the Spanish and 
French; the inhabitants of Southern Europe and of some of the Western 
States of the United States utilize them as a substitute for coffee. 

Cicer is the old Latin name, and the Enghsh "chick" is a corruption 
of the same word, although suggesting the resemblance of the seed to a 




Fig. 205. Chick Pea (Cicer arietinum). Cross section of Fig. 206. Chick Pea. Pali- 
spermoderm. pal palisade cells; suh hour-glass cells sade cells in surface 

(subepidermal layer); p spongy parenchyma. X160; view. X160. (Moel- 

(MOEI.LER.) LER.) 

chick. The specific name "arietinum^' was adopted because of the 
imagined resemblance of the seeds to a ram's head. 

The irregularly-globular seeds vary from 7-14 mm. in diameter, and 
from light buff to dark brown in color. They are encircled on one side 
by a groove, through the middle of which passes the raphe, and on the 
other by a ridge ending in a pointed projection at the micropyle. A cir- 
cular hilum I mm. in diameter is situated at the base of this projection. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Spermoderm (Fig. 205). i. The Palisade Cells are characterized by 

their variable length (35-125 /«) and by their broad lumens (Fig. 206), 

,the walls being thickened only at the extreme outer and inner ends. The 

thin radial walls are finely wrinkled toward the inner end. The cells 

are 12-20 /j. broad. 

2. The Column Cells are hour-glass-shaped, 20-30 fi high and 25-45 /j. 
broad. 

3. The Parenchyma is much the same as in the common pea. 



CHICK PEA. SOUDAN COFFEE. 



257 



Embryo. The isodiametric cells of the embryo also resemble those 
of the common pea. They contain broadly ovoid, sometimes nearly 
globular, starch grains up to 35 /< in length. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The irregular height and thin walls of the palisade cells (Fig. 205, 
pal) sutiice for the detection of this seed. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Harz (28); Moeller (29); Tschiich u. 
Oesterle (40); Villiers at Collin (42); Vogl (45). 



SOUDAN COFFEE. 

The negroes in Soudan and other parts of Africa prepare from the 
seeds and other parts of Parkia Ajricana R. Br. various articles of diet, 




me 





Fig. 



C qu 

3o8. Soudan Coffee. Ele- 



ments of spermoderni. C iso- 
lated palisade cells; qit palisade 
cell in end view; m paren- 
chyma; ep inner epidennis. 
X160. (Moeller.) 



Fig. 209. Soudan Cof- 
fee. Tissues of cot- 
y led on. X i6o. 
(Moeller.) 



Fig. 207. Soudan Coffee 
{P a r k I a Africana). 
Spermoderni in cross 
section, p palisade cells; 
s hour-glass cells (sub- 
epidermal layer) ; ;;z 
parenchyma. Xi6o. 
(Moeller.) 

including a substitute for coffee. P. Roxhurgii Don. is said to be a 
valuable food plant in the Indian x\rchipelago. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Spermoderm (Fig. 207). The intercellular substance of the Palisade 
Layer is dissolved by soaking in water and the cells (150 fi high and 15 /t 
broad) are liberated. After this treatment the isolated cells are char- 
acterized by their blunt, spindle-shaped form (Fig. 208, C). 



258 LEGUMES. 

Both the Column Cells and the Spongy Parenchyma have thick walls. 
The Embryo (Fig. 209) is thin-walled and contains protoplasm and 
fat, but no starch. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Examined in water the blunt spindle-shaped paHsade cells (Fig. 208, 
C), the thick-walled column cells and spongy parenchyma (;»), and the 
tliin -walled cells (Fig. 209) of the starch-free embiyo, are the important 
features. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See General Bibliograpliy, pp. 671-674-. ^Nloeller (29). 

JACK BEAN. 

Several tropical and subtropical species of Canavalia yield edible seeds, 
tlie most important being C. ensijormis DC. and C obtusijolla DC. Both 
are used as coffee substitutes. 

The Jack bean or Chickasaw Lima (C. ensijormis) is grown to some 
extent in the southern part of the United States both for human food and 
feeding stock. 

The ovoid beans (15 mm. long) are white with a red eye about the 
long (5-7 mm.) hilum. 

HISTOLOGY. 



Spermoderm. i. The Palisade Cells are nearly colorless, 125-150 a 



high and 10-22 a wide. Their great height distin- 
guishes them from the palisade cells of species of 

i <- \ Phaseoliis. The thin cuticle when separated bears the 

^^ 1 • • • 

|- ^^'' impressions of the cells beneath (Fig. 210). 

^ 2. The Column Cells {Y'\g. 211) o\cr \\\chod\ oi i\\e 

' seed are in four or more lavers and beneatli the hilum 

form a spongy mass upwards of 2 mm. thick. Those 

in the first layer are 25-45 ,« high and 25-60 a broad. 

^ , „ In the inner lavers one finds all transitions from tvpical 
tiG. 210. Jack Bean • , 

{CanavalUi ensi- liour-glass cells, to fantastic compound or branching 
(v7t'h imprint^'^of fo^nis such as are shown in Fig. 211, and finally to 

palisade cells, parenchvma. Brown contents are present in the cells 
(aIoeller.) 

beneath the hilum. 

3. Parenchyma. This layer presents no remarkable features. 

Embryo (Fig. 212). The moderately thick-walkxi, porous cells of the 



JACK BEAN. FENUGREEK. 



259 



cotyledons, containing ellipsoidal starch grains up to 50 /x, recall the 
corresponding tissue of the common bean. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Identification, whether in coffee or other food products, is not usually 
difficult, owing to the great height of the palisade cells and the several 





Fig. 211. Jack Bean. Subepidermal cells 
of sperm oderm. Xi6o. (Moeller.) 



Fig. 212. Jack Bean. Cotyledon tissue 
showing i intercellular spaces and / sec- 
tion of cell arm. X160. (Moeller.) 



layers of column cells (Fig, 211). The starch (Fig. 212) is of much 
the same size and form as that of the common bean. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Moeller (29). 

FENUGREEK. 

Seeds of fenugreek {TrlgoncUa Focnum-Graecum L.), remarkable alike 
for their curious shape, aromatic odor, and anatomical structure, have 
been employed as a drug both in human and veterinar)' practice for many 
centuries, especially in India, Asia Minor, Eg\'pt, the Barbary States, 
and Southern Europe. They are also used as food by the women of 
Northern Africa to give plumpness to their forms. 

The outline of the slightly flattened, brown seed is quadrilateral, 
and the form of both the cotyledons and radicle is clearly evident on 
the exterior (Fig. 213). The radicle is bent parallel to the cotyledons 
and the longer axis of the seed (Fig. 214). Under a lens, the hilum is 
seen to be situated near the apex of the radicle. 



26o 



LEGUMES. 
HISTOLOGY. 



Cross-sections, cut after soaking the seed in water, show a spermo- 
derm, a well-developed endosperm, and an embryo, both the latter being 
free from starch. 




Fig. 213. Fenugreek (Trigonella Foenum-Graecum') . FiG. 214. Fenugreek. Seed with 
a seed, natural size; the others enlarged. spermoderm partially removed 

(NoBBE.) showing cotyledon and radicle. 

(MOELLER.) 

The Spermoderm (Fig. 216, S] Fig. 215) has the three layers of a 
typical legume. 




Fig. 215. Fenugreek. Elements of seed in surface view, cut cuticle and blunt palisade 
cells; pal pointed palisade cells; sub subepidermal cells and parenchyma; a aleurone 
cells of endosperm. (Tschirch.) 

I. The Palisade Ceils (Figs. 215 and 216, pal), 60-75 i" high and 
8-20 fi broad, have narrow cavities in the outer, broad cavities in the 



FENUGREEK. 



261 



inuc 



muc 



inner portions. On the outer surface the side walls are continued into 
pointed or, less often, blunt ends 8-20 /i long, projecting into an outer 
mucilaginous coat, the latter being indistinct in water and entirely in- 
visible on the addition of alkali. The cells with blunt ends are higher 
than the pointed cells. A narrow light 
line 3-6 jx is situated 25-35 !^ from 
the outer ends of the cells. 

2. The Column Cells (Figs. 215 and 
216, sub), although but 15-20 /x high, 
are quite as remarkable as the palisade 
cells. They are hour-glass-shaped, but 
the inner end is much broader than 
the outer. Particularly striking are the 
ribs, which may be seen either in cross 
section or in surface view, in the latter 
case presenting a beautiful radiating 
effect. Their great breadth, 30-75 /<, is 
a notable feature. 

3. Parenchyma (Fig. 216, p) with 
wa\T walls and occasional intercellular 
spaces completes the spermoderm. 

An Endosperm (Fig. 216, E), glassy 
when dry, mucilaginous when wet, 
makes up nearly half the volume of 
the seed. 

1. Aleurone Cells (Figs. 215 and 
216, a). A single layer of cells (15-45 
/i) containing small aleurone grains 
envelops the embryo, and extends also 
between the cotyledons and the radicle. 

2. Mucilage Cells {muc). Tschirch 
has shown that each cell has a veiy 
thick mucilaginous inner m.embrane, which is evident on adding 
glycerine slowly to a water preparation. In sections mounted in water 
only the thin primary membrane is evident. The cells appear to be 
empty. 

Embryo (C). The hard yellow cotyledons and radicle contain aleurone 
grains (a/) but no starch. Usually three layers of palisade cells underlie 
the inner epidermis. 




Fig. 216. Fenugreek. Seed in cross 
section. 5 spermoderm consists of 
pal palisade cells with cut cuticle and 
/ light line, sub subepidermal layer, 
and p parenchyma; E endosperm con- 
sists of a aleurone cells and muc mu- 
cilage cells; C cotyledon, with ep^ and 
f/)^ epidermal layers and al aleurone 
cells. Xi6o. (WiNTOX.) 



262 LEGUMES. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Fenugreek is a common ingredient of condimental cattle foods and 
condition powders, where it is recognized by its characteristic taste and 
odor. 

The high, pointed paHsade cells (Figs. 215 and 216, pal) with 
mucilaginous outer membranes («^/), the ribbed column cells (5M&), 
and the aleurone cells {a) are all easily found in fragments of the hull. 
Starch is absent throughout. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Harz (18); Hassall (19); Meyer, A. (27); 

Moeller (31)', Planchon et Collin (34); Tschirch (39); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40). 

GoDFRrN:. Etude histologique sur les tegument seminaux des Angiospermes. Soc. 
d. Sci. d. Nancy. 1880, 109. 

DE Lanessan : Sur la structure des graines du TrigoncUa Foenum Graecum et la pre- 
sence d'un albumen dans ces graines. Bull, de la soc. Linn, de Paris seance du 4 
juillet 1877, 134. 

Sempolowski: Ueber den Bau des Schale landwirthschaftlich wichtiger Samen. 
Landw. Jahrb. 1874, 3, 823. 

COFFEE CASSIA. 

Seeds of coffee cassia or Alogdad coffee {Cassia occidentalis L.) are 
raised in parts of Africa, the East and West Indies, and other tropical 
regions as a substitute for coffee. 

Although a legume, the seed in external appearance does not resemble 
at all those of any other common member of the family. It is flattened 
obovoid, 4-6 mm. long, 3-4 mm. broad, its shape reminding one of the 
sesame seed. Its color is dark gray. An elliptical spot on the middle of 
each flattened side is dull and lusterless; the remainder of the surface 
however, is lustrous, owing to an enameldike coating, which readily 
flakes off from the dr}' seed. The embryo, consisting of two thin but 
broad heart-shaped cotyledons and a short, straight radicle, is em- 
bedded in a horny endosperm. 

HISTOLOGY. 

After soaking in water for 24 hours, the outer coats form a slimy 
mass, which can be separated for study in surface view. The soaked 
seed also serves for cutting sections of the endosperm and embryo, but 
the dry or partially swollen seed is better suited for sections of the outer 
coats. 



COFFEE Cy4SSIA. 



263 



The Spermoderm (Fig. 217) is closely united with the endosperm. 

I. Palisade Cells (p). These are 60-75 A* high and 3-7 fx broad, 
the breadth being less than in most members of the family. A striking 
characteristic is the cuticular membrane, which is not a cuticle proper, 
but is made up of the metamorphosed outer portions of the paUsade cells. 
Cross sections show that in the elliptical spots already mentioned this 
cuticular membrane is 30-35 /t thick, or nearly half the height of the 
cells, though in other parts it is only about 12 /z. That it is derived from 
the cells proper is indicated by the faint markings perpendicular to the 




Fig. 217. Coffee Cassia (C issia occiden- 
talis). Elements of spermoderm. p pali- 
sade cells in surface view; c isolated 
cells; cp cuticular plates; 5 subepidermal 

cells. (MOELLER.) 



Fig. 2i8. Coffee Cassia. Cells of endo- 
sperm with brown contents. X 1 60. 

(MoELLER.) 



surface, which correspond to the radial walls of the inner portion of 
the layer. These are more distinct in the broader portion of the 
membrane. The enamel-like scales {cp) which separate from the dry 
seed consist of this membrane, although over the spots the fusion is 
more complete and no such separation takes place. The light line is 
confined entirely to the inner portion of the layer, being most distinct 
beneath the thick portion of the cuticular membrane. x\bout two-thirds 
of the distance from the line of separation of the cuticular membrane to 
the inner surface of the layer there is noticeable a line of demarcation, 
caused by the presence of dark contents in the cell cavities, which are 
there somewhat inflated. In surface view the membrane displays pecuhar 
zigzag walls. ]\loeller was the first to call attention to the disintegra- 
tion of the palisade cells through swelling, which takes place after soaking 
for a day or two in water. The cuticular membrane is not affected by 



264 LEGUMES. 

this treatment, but the cells proper are reduced to a mass of hair-like 
bodies, shown in Fig. 217, c 

2. The Column Cells [s) are 16-25 /' long, 25-40 /( broad, and liave 
somewhat thickened walls. 

3. The Parenchyma Cells are also thick- walled. 

Endosperm (Fig. 218). This resembles the horny endosperm of the 
carob bean, consisting of cells with enormously swollen walls and brown 
proteid contents. Cross sections are elliptical, bisected by the narrow, 
band-like sections of the cotyledons. 

Embryo. The thin cotyledons have two rows of palisade cells on 
the inner surface. They contain protcids and fat. 

DIAGNOSIS 

This seed is one of the few belonging to the legume family that con- 
tains no starch. The cuticular membrane is alike characteristic both 
in section and surface view. It is thickest on the elliptical spots. The 
small breadth of the palisade cells, their length, and the horny character 
of the endosperm, further aid in identification. If time permits, the 
effect of soaking the material for a day or two in water should be noted. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hanausek, T. F. (10); Moeller (29); Vogl 

(45)- 

Moeller: Ueber Cassia-Samen. Bot. Ztg. 1880, 3S, 737. 

ASTRAGALUS. 

The coffee astragalus {Astragalus haeticus L.) is found wild in Spain 
and Portugal, and is cultivated in other parts of Europe for its seeds, 
which, after roasting, are said to have a true coffee flavor. "Swedish 
Continental Coffee," a popular substitute for coft'ee, is a preparation of 
this seed. 

The seeds resemble fenugreek in color, shape, and size. They are 
brown, more or less rhombohcdral with flattened ends, and are upward 
of 5 mm. long and about two-thirds as broad. The position of the radicle 
is distinctly marked on the surface. 

HISTOLOGY. 

In anatomical structure also, the seeds of astragalus and fenugreek 
are very similar, the chief difference being in the size and structure of the 
palisade cells. 



ASTRAGALUS. LUCERNE. 



265 



Spermoderm (Fig. 219). i. The Palisade Cells (p) are colorless, 
125-150/. high, and 12-20 « broad. They are somewhat geniculate 



Although there is no distinct line of 



t- 




-P 



hke the pahsade cells of the lupine 
demarcation, the cavity in the inner 
portion is broader and more irregu- 
lar than in the outer. 

2. Column Cells (/). These are 
hour-glass-shaped, 16-40 a high, 
and 35-75 n broad. Distinct ribs 
are conspicuous both in cross sec- 
tion and surface view. 

3. Parenchyma. This layer is 
much compressed and presents no fig. ..9. AstragalusTTL./.-.!). surface 

mteresting features. "^^ew of p pahsade cells and t subepidermal 

■r, , 4 ,, ^^^^^- X160. (MOELLER.) 

Endosperm. i. An Aleurone 

Layer of more or less rectangular cells 25-50 pt broad forms the outer 
coat. 

2. Mucilage Cells much Hke those of fenugreek constitute the horny 
inner portion of the endosperm. Viewed in water, only the faint outhne 
of the cells is visible. 

Embryo. Proteid matter and fat form the reserve material. Starch 
is not present. The cells of the cotyledons are thronghout thin-walled 
and somewhat elongated, those in the inner layers being pronounced 
pahsade cells. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

All the tissues are practically the same as in fenugreek, except the 
pahsade cells, which are fully twice as high and are neither swollen nor 
pointed at the outer extremities. These cells are geniculate and nearly 
colorless. In surface view the ribbed column cells (Fig. 219, /) remind 
one of sunbursts, but this appearance is common to fenugreek, alfalfa 
and some other leguminons seeds. Starch is absent. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hanausek, T. F. (10); Harz d 
(29)- 

LUCERNE. 



8); Moeller 



Although grown only as a forage crop, the seeds of lucerne or alfalfa 
(Medicago sativa L.) occur as an impurity in wheat, when this crop fol- 
lows alfalfa in rotation. 



266 



LEGUMES. 



The curious spiral pod contains small seeds 2-3 mm. long, with a promi- 
nent ridge over the radicle (Fig, 220). 

HISTOLOGY. 

In microscopic as well as macroscopic structure, the seed corresponds 

closely with fenugreek, except that the 
dimensions of the parts are much 
smaller. 

Spermoderm. The pahsade cells, 
with pointed and mucilaginous outer 
membranes, are 30-40 /i high and 
Q-15 n broad; the ribbed column 
cells are 10-15 11 high and 15-45 jJ- 
Inroad. 

The Endosperm of aleurone and 
mucilage cehs, and the embryo con- 
taining aleurone grains but no starch, 
are vciw like the corresponding parts 
of fenuCTcek. 




Fig. 220. Lucerne {Medicago sativa). 
Seeds, natural size and enlarged. 

(NOBBE.) 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Harz (18). 

PEANUT. 

Formerly the peanut {Arachis Jiypogaea L.) was thought to be a native 
of the Old World, but more recent investigations indicate that it is a Brazil- 
ian plant which was introduced into other regions in early colonial times. 

At the present time, peanuts are grown in Africa, Southern Europe, 
India, China, Japan, and the Islands of the Pacific, largely for the pro- 
duction of oil and oil cake, the latter serving as food for man and cattle, 
and in the United States for consumption as roasted peanuts and in peanut 
confectionery. Peanut hay, consisting of the stalks, leaves, and immature 
pods is utilized as a cattle food. About 4,000,000 bushels of peanuts 
are annually consumed in the United States, the larger part being roasted 
and sold on the street.^ 

The African variety, grown not only in Africa, but also in India and 
other parts of the eastern hemisphere, as well as in North Carolina, yields 



' Handy: U. S. Dcpt. Agr., Farmers' Bui. No. 25 



PEANUT. 



367 



a small pod with seeds rich in oil. A variety with larger pods (often 4-5 cm. 
long), but less oily seeds, is extensively grown in Virginia, yielding the 
nuts commonly roasted by venders. Tennessee produces two varieties, 
the white and the red. A small podded variety is grown in Spain partly 
for the production of oil, and partly for the cake which, mixed with choco- 
late and spices, is a common food for the lower classes. The Spanish 
peanut is also cultivated to a limited extent in America. 

Peanuts of the varieties named usually contain two seeds, less often 
one, rarely three. Costa Rica produces a variety with long pods containing 





Fig. 221. Ve2inni {Arachis liy- 
pogaea). Fruit, natural size. 

(WiNTON.) 



Fig. 222. Peanut. Cross section of fruit, m meso- 
carp, / fiber layer and p parenchyma, of the pericarp; 
g fibre-vascular bundle; 5 spermoderm; C coty- 
ledon. X4. (WiNTON.) 



four to live seeds. A variety grown in Argentine Republic has pods of a 
deep orange color. 

The peanut belongs to a small group of legumes which ripen their 
fruit below ground. Shortly after blooming the flower stalks bend down- 
ward until the young fruit is completely buried in the soil. If for any 
reason this does not occur the fruit fails to ripen. 

The dry pod, or pericarp, is brittle and easily broken with the fingers. 
Ten or more longitudinal ridges with anastomosing branches form more 
or less distinct reticulations on the outer surface (Fig. 221). Beneath 
the surface is a spongy tissue, further inward a thin but hard woody coat 
(Fig. 222, /), and still further inward, formJng the hning of the pod, a 
papery tissue (p) with a silky luster. In the early stages of ripening the 
seeds completely fill the pod, and as a result of this crowding the adjacent 
surfaces are flattened in a diagonal plane. This flattened surface is at 
the hilum end of the upper seed, at the chalaza end of the lower seed. When 
ripe the seeds only partly fill the cavity. The united spermoderm and 
perisperm form a thin skin, red or brown on the outer, colorless or yellow 



268 



LEGUMES. 



on the inner surface, on which are veins formed by tlic raphe and the 
five branches radiating from it at the clialaza. 

The elongated cotyledons (Fig. 222, C) arc longitudinally grooved 
on the inner surface. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The Pericarp (Figs. 223 and 224), or shell, while morphologically 
corresponding with the pod of other legumes, cxliibits some remarkable 
peculiarities traceable partly at least to the conditions encountered while 
ripening in the soil. Not only is it deprived of all chlorophyl and con- 




FiG. 223. Peanut. Pericarp in cross section, ep epicarp with h liair; liy hypoderm; 
mes mesocarp; qf transversely elongated fibers; // longitudinally elongated fibers; 
p parenchyma; b bast fibers, ph phloem and xy xylem, of a fibro-vascular bundle. XSo. 

(WiNTON.) 

sequently of the photosynthetic power of the leaf, but, on the other hand, 
is provided with root hairs, and presumably possesses to some degree 
the absorptive function of a true root. In other words, the pericarp, 
although morphologically a leaf, acts physiologically as a root. 

1. The Epicarp Cells {ep) have such thin walls that they are seen 
with difficulty in surface view. In cross section, especially after stain- 
ing with safranin, the presence of typical root hairs, arising from the 
center of many of the epidermal cells, is evident. These hairs are not 
usually present on the peanuts sold by venders, due probably to their 
removal by cleaning or by friction of one against the other in the bags. 

2. Hypoderm (liy). The cells of one or more layers beneath the epi- 
dermis have thin non-porous walls, but further inward the walls are 



PEANUT. 269 

thick and conspicuously porous. Owing to these pores as well as their 
quadrilateral shape the cells are readily identified in powdered shells. 

3. The Mesocarp{mes),ov more properly the outer parenchyma la3^er, 
consists of thin-walled cells which become obliterated to a large extent 
on ripening. Over the bundles this layer is thin or lacking. 

4. Fiber Layer (Fig. 223, gj, I}; Fig. 224, /, z, g, h, k, t). A thin but 




Fig. 224. Peanut. Isolated elements of the pericaryj. a and /) cells of the hypoderm; 
/, z, k, li, t, d and g cells of the fiber layer. X i6o. (Winton.) 

hard coat of fibers extended in different tangential directions gives rigidity 
to tlie pericarp. Many of these fibers bear rows of saw-teeth (s), be- 
tween which lie the crossing fibers of an adjacent layer. At the end they 
are often branched, giving rise to halberd-shaped Qi) and other curious 
forms. Many other remarkable cells varying greatly in size, form and 
wall thickness occur in this layer. 

The ridges forming the reticulations of the nut are but channeled 
outgrowths of this layer, formed by remarkable T- (/) and L-shaped 
fibers. Often in partially macerated specimens one hnds a series of 



270 



LEGUMES. 



these angled fibers, part of each belonging to the fiber-layer proper, the 
remainder to a ridge. 

In the channels of these outgrowths run the fibro- vascular bundles 
with well-marked bast libers (6), phloem {ph), and xylem (xy). 

5. Inner Parenchyma (p). Cross sections of partly ripe seeds show 
a thick inner layer of pith -like cells, with triangular intercellular spaces 
at the corners. At full maturity, especially after dr)'ing the seeds, the 
compressed cells of this layer form the papery Hning of the shell. 



aep 




Fig. 225. Peanut. Seed in cross section. 5 spermoderm consists of aep outer epidermis, 
/>' parenchyma, p- and p'^ spongy parenchyma, and iep inner epidermis; g fibro-vascular 
bundle; N perisperm; C cotyledon consists of ep epidermis with sto stoma and the 
porous parenchyma cells containing si starch grains and al aleurone grains. Xi6o. 

(WiNTON.) 

The Spermoderm (Fig. 225, S; Fig. 226) and perisperm form a thin 
dr)' skin which may be readily separated and sectioned either dry in paraf- 
finc, or wet between pieces of pith. As recommended by T. F. Hanau- 
sek, sections should be treated either with hydrochloric acid and alkali, 
or with Javelle water, in order to make the inner epidermis of the sper- 
moderm evident. 

I. The Outer Epidermis (aep) corresponds with the palisade layer 
of other legumes, although the two appear at first sight to have nothing 
in common. The cells are 15-25 p. high and 25-50 fx broad. Cross 
sections show that the inner walls are thin but that the radial walls 
increase in thickness from within outward, and as a consequence the 
cavities are more or less triangular in shape. 



PEANUT. 



271 



Radially elongated pores pierce the thickened portion of the walls, 
forming ribs. Examined in surface view the sharply polygonal cells 
with thickened and porous radial walls present a characteristic appear- 
ance. 

When it is considered that the palisade cells of nearly all legumes are 
polygonal in surface view and have ribbed radial walls, increasing in 
thickness from within outward, it is evident that these cells differ from 




Fig. 226. Peanut. Elements of the seed in surface view. ac[> outer e])idermis of spermo- 
derm; p^ parenchyma; p^ and p"^ spongy parenchyma; g bundle; iep inner epidermis 
of spermoderm; N perisperm; cp epidermis of cotyledon with sto stoma. X160. 

(WiNTON.) 

the type merely in that they are broader, higher, and have a broader 
lumen. 

2. Subepidermal Layer (p^). Column cells such as characterize other 
legumes are not present, the layer being of thin-walled parenchyma cells 
without intercellular spaces. 

3. Parenchyma. The character of the cells varies from ordinary 
parenchyma {p^) in the outer layers to spongy parenchyma with moderate- 
sized intercellular spaces in the middle layers (/?'-) and then to a very 
striking spongy parenchyma, with narrow branching cells and rela- 
tively large intercellular spaces in the inner layers {p"^). These latter 
aid in identification. Strongly developed vascular elements occur in 
the raphe bundles and its branches. 

4. Inner Epidermis {iep). Treatment of sections with Javelle water 
brings into evidence the inner epidermis. In surface preparations 
treated in the same manner, and stained with safranin, the cells are 
quadrilateral, usually elongated, with often marked evidence of division 
and subdivision of the mother cells. 



272 



LEGUMES. 



Perisperm (Figs. 225 and 226, N). A single layer of moderately 
thick- walled cells with somewhat wavy contour forms the inner coat of 
the skin. The contents, according to T. F. Hanausek, are granules 
consisting sometimes of corroded cr)'stals. 

The Embryo (C) comprises two large cotyledons and a relatively 

small radicle. 

1. The Epidermal Cells {ep) of the cotyledons are characterized by 
their elongated form and thick outer walls. Smah aleurone grains are 
present in all the cells, and starch grains of smah size, according to 
Hanausek, only in the guard cells of the stomata (st). 

2. Mesophyl. Cells of large size containing aleurone grains (al), 
starch grains (st), and fat make up the larger part of the cotyledons. 
Their double walls, pierced by large pores, range up to 6 /t in thickness, 
being separated at the angles to form smah intercehular spaces. The 
starch grains (up to 15 ;it) are globular and have a central hilum. The 
aleurone grains vary greatly in shape and size, some of them being about 
the size of the largest starch grains, most of them, however, only half 
or a third as large. Several globoids are present in the largest grains. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Peanut shells (pericarp) are a normal constituent of peanut cake 
made from unhulled peanuts and of cattle food made from damaged or 
immature fruits. They are identified by the pitted, more or less quadri- 
lateral hvpoderm cells (Fig. 224, a, b) and the various elements of the. 
fiber layer, particularly the L- and T-shaped (/), toothed (s) and halberd- 
shaped (h) forms. The root hairs of the epidermis are difficult to find 
and the compressed parenchyma cells are not characteristic. 

Products containing the seed include peanut cake, peanut confectionery, 
peanut butter (a paste prepared from the seed after removal of the pericarp 
and spermoderm), and the mixtures of chocolate and peanut cake prepared 
in Spain and possibly in other countries. The products contain not 
only the starch (Fig. 225, st), fat and proteids of the seed, but also in 
greater or less amount the tissues of the spermoderm (Fig. 226), of 
which the porous, sharply polygonal cells of the outer epidermis (aep), 
and the spongy parenchyma cells, often with narrow arms (p^), are most 
useful in diagnosis. Fragments of the spermoderm, brown or red on the 
outer, yellow on the inner surface, can often be picked out under the 
single microscope. 



TONKA BEAN. 273 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Benecke (2); Bohmer (10); Hanausek, 
T. F, (48); Harz (18); Moeller (29); Vogl (45). 
Bilteryst: Recherche de I'arachide et de son tourteau dans le chocolat. Jour, pharm. 

chim. 1897, 6, 29. 
KoBUS: Kraftfutter und seiner Verfalschung. Landw. Jahrb. 1884, 13, 813. 
Uhlitzsch: Riickstande der Erdnussolfabrikation. Landw. Vers.-Stat. 1892, 41, 385. 
Winton: The Anatomy of the Peanut with Special Reference to its Microscopic Identifi- 
cation in Food Products. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1904, 191. 

TONKA BEAN. 

South America produces the larger part of the Tonka or Tonquin 
beans of commerce, the chief ports of shipment being Angostura in Vene- 
zuela, Surinam in Guiana, and Para in Brazil. 

The true Tonka bean is the seed of Coimiarouna odorata Aubl. {Dip- 
teryx odorata Willd.), but less important commercial sorts are the products 
of other species of the same genus (C oppositijolia (Aubl.) Taub., etc.). 
They are used in perfumery, flavoring extracts, and medicines. 

As seen in the market, the black seeds vary from 25-50 mm. in length 
and from 10-20 mm. in breadth, measured across the flattened sides at the 
broadest part. One edge of the seed is sharp, the other blunt, the hilum 
being situated on the blunt edge near one end. The surface is wrinkled 
and often covered with white crystals of coumarin, the flavoring principle 
of this seed as well as of the leaves of sweet clover {Melilotus ofjicinalis), 
sweet vernal grass {Anthoxanthum odoratiim), and the sweet woodruff 
(Asperula odorata). Two large cotyledons with a small radicle at the 
end make up the embryo. 

HISTOLOGY. 

T. F. Hanausek has called attention to the histological structure of 
this seed, which shows some remarkable variations from the usual legu- 
minous type. 

Spermoderm. This, together with the perisperm and the nearly 
obhterated endosperm, separates from the embryo as a thin, brittle shell. 

I. The Palisade Cells are much thinner- walled than in ordinary 
legumes, the cavity being broader than the double walls even in the outer 
portion where the walls are thickest. A nearly black substance fills the 
cavity. Seen in cross section, these cells are rectangular; in surface view, 
polygonal. The outer half of each cell is thickened by ribs arranged 
parallel to the axis and separated from each other by narrow slits or pores. 
Focusing on this outer portion of the cell, the thickened walls in surface 



2 74 LEGUMES. 

view appear beaded. The cells are 50-65 // high and 16-25 j" broad. 
After maceration in alkali their characteristics are manifest. 

2. T^he Column Cells have thickened walls and are not in close contact. 
Although hour-glass-shaped, the cells are often curiously distorted. They 
are 15-24 n high, 30-50 // broad. 

3. Spongy Parenchyma with moderately thick walls and well marked 
intercellular spaces forms the third layer. In the inner layers the cells 
are much compressed. 

4. An Inner Epidermis or pigment layer consists of transversely 
elongated cells with dark contents. 

Perisperm. A layer of aleurone cells is classed by ' Hanausek as a 
nucellar remnant or perisperm. 

Endosperm. Within the aleurone layer is a hyahne membrane with 
indistinct cellular structure, the remains of the endosperm. 

Embryo. The isodiametric cells of the cotyledons contain round 

starch grains (4-9 /i) and yellow, irregularly elongated aleurone grains up 

to 35 n long, embedded in a ground substance of fat and proteid material. 

As the aleurone grains are insoluble in water, both these and the starch 

grains are clearly differentiated by extracting sections with ether and 

mounting in potassium iodide iodine. Hanausek found that if the section 

was treated with alcohol before mounting in iodine solution, only a faint 

blue color appeared in the starch grains, a phenomenon which he attributed 

to the formation of a protective coat over the grains preventing the entrance 

of the iodine. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Although synthetic coumarin has, to a large degree, replaced Tonka 
beans, the latter are still used in considerable amount in perfumery, 
snuff, and flavoring extracts. As vanilla extract is often mixed with 
extract of the Tonka bean, it is quite possible that ground vanilla beans 
are adulterated with ground Tonka beans. 

Coumarin may be isolated and quantitatively determined by chemical 
means; but the microscope must be depended on to detect ground 
Tonka beans. 

The palisade cells with dark contents, characteristic alike in section 
and surface view, the irregularly shaped column cells and the grains of 
aleurone and starch contained in the cotyledons, render identification a 
simple matter. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hanausek, T. F. (48); Planchon et Collin 
(34); Vogl (44)- 



CAROB BEAN. 



CAROB BEAN. 



275 



The nutritive elements of the carob bean {Ceratonia Siliqua L.) reside 
chiefly in the fleshy pods, which contain a high percentage of sugar. 
It is beheved that the husks eaten by the prodigal son were the pods of 
this bean, then as now a common swine food ; also that the locusts and 
wild honey on which John the Baptist subsisted while in the wilderness 
were respectively the seeds and pods of this same bean, hence the name 
St. John's bread. 

Throughout the countries bordering on the Mediterranean the carob 
tree is cultivated and the pods are used as food for the poorer classes 
and cattle, also for the preparation of drugs, sirups, alcoholic liquors, 
etc. In Germany they are eaten by children as confectionery. 

The several-seeded fruit is 10--20 cm. long, 2-3 cm. broad, 5-10 mm. 
thick, and has several cells with a coriaceous hning (endocarp), each 
containing a flattened, obovate seed 8-10 mm, long of a dark wine color. 
On either side of the furrowed sutures the pods are swollen, and within 
each of the four swollen portions occurs a row of cavities, which are 
readily seen in longitudinal section. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Pericarp (Fig. 227). Although this fruit is similar in structure to 
other legumes, several of the tissues have individual characteristics which 
allow of their ready identification. 

1. Epidermis (ep). Of the several layers of cells with dark-brown 
contents which together form the leathery outer portion of the pod, the 
outermost consists of polygonal cells (12-30 /i) and stomata, with cuticu- 
larized outer walls. 

2. The Hypodermal Layer (rp), often 120 /i thick, is made up of 
6-10 layers of tabular parenchyma cells, which, in surface view, are 
rounded. They are filled with browni contents hkc that in the epicarp. 

3. Fibro -vascular Bundles. The bast fibers (b) form a nearly unin- 
terrupted layer. They are accompanied by crystal-fibers (k), each con- 
taining a single crystal, and stone cells (st). Further inward are the 
phloem and xylem, the latter containing only a few vascular elements. 

4. Mesocarp (mc). The fruit-flesh or mesocarp is a thick tissue 
of large, thin-walled, radially elongated parenchyma cells, containing 
sugar and large, curiously wrinkled, reddish-brown lumps (z). These 
lumps are insoluble in water, alcohol, acetic acid, and dilute sulphuric 



276 



LEGUMES. 



acid. Chlorzinc iodine colors them yellow, the cell-walls blue. A 
highly characteristic reaction is the colors produced by caustic soda 
or potash. If the alkali is cold and dilute, the color changes first to 
green, then to blue-gray. Heating produces a violet color. If, however, 
the alkali is strong and heat is cautiously apphed, a magnificent deep 
blue is obtained at once. This color is insoluble in alcohol and ether, 

b 
ep 




Fig. 227. Carob Bean {Ceratonia Siliqua). Elements of pericarp in surface view, ep 
epicarp with 5 stoma; r/> brown hypoderm; 6 bast fibers; wc mesocarp with s wrinkled 
bodies. X160. (Moeller.) 

but slowly changes on exposure to the air (more quickly with hydro- 
chloric acid) to red-brown. 

5. Inner Fiber Layer. The cavities containing the seeds have a 
chartaceous lining or "endocarp" consisting of bast fibers, crystal 
fibers, and stone cells, much like those occurring in the fibro-vascular 
bundles of the outer pericarp, also of an inner epidermis. The fibers 
in this layer are arranged transversely, in other words, at right angles 
to those of the outer pericarp. 

6. The Inner Epidermis or Endocarp proper consists of a single 
layer of small, isodiametric cells (15-25 //) with swollen and conspicu- 
ously beaded walls. 

The Spermoderm is closely united with the endosperm. 

1. The Palisade Cg//^ examined in water are 170-250 /< high, of which 
35-50 /( is a swollen outer layer with no evident lumens. 

2. Column Cells. The walls of the hour-glass-shaped column cells 



CAROB BEAN. 



277 



swell greatly, so that the cavities are hardly discernable. Intercellular 
spaces are, however, distinctly evident. The layer is 20-35 [x thick. 

3. Parenchyma. The walls throughout are greatly swollen. In 
the outer and middle layers, the cells are large ; in the inner layers small, 
and in addition dark colored. 

The Endosperm (Fig. 228) is green-white, of a dense homy structure. 
In the middle of the broad side of the seeds it is 2 mm. thick, but dimin- 




FiG. 228. Carob Bean. Endosperm with thickened cell walls. (AIoeller.) 

ishes toward the edges, where it is almost entirely absent. The partitions 
between the cells are enormously thickened, owing to a deposition of 
a carbohydrate material in the intercellular spaces. On heating with 
water this intercellular substance dissolves, while the swollen inner 
membrane or true cell-wall remains intact. Protein and fat are the 
only visible cell-contents. 

Embryo. In cross section the embryo appears as a narrow, yellow 
band less than i mm. thick, extending along the entire longer axis of the 
eUipse dividing the endosperm into two semieUiptical halves. 

Three inner layers of palisade cells and several outer layers of iso- 

diametric cells forni the mesophyl. The contents are aleurone grains 

and fat. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Ground carob beans are used as a cattle food and a coffee substitute. 
The brown, wrinkled bodies (Fig. 227, 2) of the mesocarp are identified 



278 LEGUMES. 

by the blue color produced by heating with 5-10 per cent alkali. The 
bast fibers {h) and other elements of the bundles, also the cells of the 
epicarp {ep) and hypodemi {rp) with brown contents, are readily found, 
but are not characteristic. Of the seed elements, the long palisade cells 
with swollen outer walls, and especially the endosperm cells (Fig. 228), 
are most remarkable. The latter are best identified in sections cut from 
the white, horny fragments. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bell (i); Harz (18); Moeller (29); Vogl (45). 
Marliere: Sur la graine et specialement sur I'endosperme du Ceratonia Siliqua. 
La Cellule, 1897, 13, 5. 



PART V. 

NUTS. 



NUTS. 

PALM FRUITS {Palmes). 

The fruits of the pahns are either fleshy (e.g. date) or dry (e. g . cocoa- 
nut). The endocarp of certain of these nuts is a thick layer of stone 
cells. The reserve material of the seed, consisting largely of fat and 
proteid (cocoanut, palm nut) or of cellulose in the form of thickened 
cell-walls (date, ivory nut), is usually stored in the endosperm. 

COCOANUT. 

The cocoanut palm (Cocos nucifera L.) yields food for man and 
cattle, oil, fiber, and other useful products, also adulterants. 

The flowers are arranged in spikes branching from a central axis 
and inclosed with a tough spathe usually a meter or more in length. A 
single female flower is borne near the base of each lateral axis, and numer- 
ous male flowers are distributed on all sides of the axis between the female 
flower and the apex. After the male flowers drop, the naked lateral 
axis persists, forming a prominent appendage of the fruit (Fig. 229, A). 
Only one ovule of the three-celled ovary comes to maturity, but the tri- 
carpellary nature of the fruit is indicated by its triangular shape as well 
as by the longitudinal ridges and the three eyes or germinating holes of 
the nut. When ripe the fruit is inverted pear-shape, 25 cm. or more in 
length. 

The epicarp (Fig. 229, Epi) is a smooth tough coat, of a brownish 
or grayish color. 

The mesocarp (Mes), consists of a thin, but hard outer coat, and 
a soft portion usually 3-4 cm. thick on the sides and much thicker on 
the base, with numerous longitudinally arranged fibers. 

Oftentimes the inner layers of the mesocarp become impregnated 
with a brown fluid, which on drying gives the thin tissue a mottled brown 
appearance. 

The endocarp, or shell (Fig. 229, End; Fig. 230), consists of a hard. 

281 



282 



NUTS. 



dark-brown coat, 2-6 mm. thick, with numerous fibers adhering to the 
surface. Three nearly equidistant ridges (often indistinct) pass from 
base to apex, where they unite to form a blunt point. At the basal end, 
between the ridges, are the three depressions or eyes (K), the tissues of 
which are much softer and thinner than those of the rest of the shell. 




IT'"'* 



Fig. 220. Cocoanut (Cocos nucifera). S lower part of axis forming stem; A upper end 
of axis with scars of male flowers; Epi epicarp; Mes mesocarp with fibers; End endocarp 
or hard shell; T portion of spermoderrji adhering to endosperm; Alb endosperm sur- 
rounding cavity of the nut; K germinating eye. X^. (Winton.) 



Through the softest of these eyes the embryo, embedded in the endosperm 
directly behind it, escapes in sprouting. 

The Spermoderm of the anatropous seed {T) is a thin coat of a light- 
brown color, closely united with the endocarp without and the endo- 
sperm within. Embedded in the outer portion and extending from the 
principal eye nearly to the apex is the raphe, consisting of a thin band 
of vascular tissues about i cm. broad, which sends off branches in all 
directions, forming a network about the seed. The endosperm with 
the inner portion of the spermoderm may be separated from the outer 
spermoderm and endocarp by introducing a knife-blade between the layers. 
Bv this operation the veins are spht, part of the vascular tissue adhering 
to the convex surface of the inner spermoderm and the remainder to 



coco AN UT. 



283 



the concave surface of the outer spermoderm, so that both surfaces arc 
covered with reticulations. 

The endosperm or meat {Alh.) is a white, fleshy 
layer, 1-2 cm. thick, in which, near the base, 
is embedded the small embr)'0. While imma- 
ture, the nut is filled with a milky Hquid and has no 
solid endosperm, but as the ripening proceeds the 
endosperm is gradually formed and at the same 
time the milky liquid diminishes in quantity or 
entirely disappears. 

The epicarp and mesocarp are cut away from Fig. 230. Cocoanut. In- 

, . , . , . . , , ner surface of shell with 

nuts designed tor export, although mvariably a 




small amount of the mesocarp with its fibers re- 
mains attached to the shell. The dried meat 
(copra) is exported in large amount to Europe, 
where the oil is expressed. 

HISTOLOGY. 



adhering outer spermo- 
derm. At the left the 
raphe, from which pro- 
ceed veins forming a net- 
work over the surface. 

X^. (WiNTON.) 



Pericarp, i. The Epicarp consists of a single layer of rectangular 
cells with dark contents. 




Fig. 231. Cocoanut. Cross section of a large flattened (mesocarp) fiber, ste stegmata; 
/ sheath of bast fibers; ph two phloem groups; x xylem; p parenchyma of ground 
tissue; a rudimentary bundle belonging to small branch. X90. (Winton.) 

2. Mesocarp. The outer portion consists of a ground tissue of thick- 
walled, porous cells, through which pass longitudinally arranged strands 



284 



NUTS. 



of bast elements. Further inward the ground tissue is thin-walled 
parenchyma and the strands are well developed fibro- vascular bundles. 
Wherever the brown liquid previously reiferred to has penetrated the 




Fig. 232. Cocoanut. Longitudinal section of a large (mesocarp) fiber, ste stegmata; 
Si silicious body; / bast fibers; / tracheids with small pits; t' tracheids with large pits; 
.s^ spiral vessel ; r reticulated vessel; 5C scalariform vessel; j sieve tube; c and c' cambi- 
form cells. X300, (Winton.) 

inner layers of the mesocarp, groups of the parenchyma cells here and 
there, being impregnated with this material, are of a brown color and 
appear thicker-walled than the others (Fig. 234, br). This brown sub- 
stance is quickly changed to a reddish color by alkaH, but is not 
affected by alcohol, ether, or the specific reagents for proteids, fats and 

resins. No immediate effect is produced by 
ferric chloride solution, but on long standing 
the color is changed to olive-green. 

Coir libers (Figs. 231 and 232) are built 
up of a thick sheath of bast fibers with rows of 
stegmata on the surface, and within the sheath 
two groups of phloem and one of xylem. 
As seen in surface view the stegmata (ste) are circular or elliptical, 
thick-walled cells (8-20 fj) extending in longitudinal rows over the surface 
of the fibers. Inclosed in each cell and filling it almost completely is 
a silicious body (Fig. 233), 6-12 /i, with wart-like protuberances on the 
surface. 

The phloem elements are sieve tubes and cambiform cells; the xylem 
elements, spiral, reticulated and scalariform vessels, also tracheids. 





Fig. 233. Cocoanut. Silicious 
bodies from the stegmata of 
a fiber. X1500. (Winton.) 



COCO/1NUT. 



285 




Mes 






Fig. 234. Cocoanut. Cross section of shell. End endocarp or hard shell; Mes adhering 
mesocarp; T adhering outer sperm oderm; w colorless parenchyma of mesocarp; br 
same as w but impregnated with a brown substance; ^vascular bundles in the endo- 
carp, with phloem and .xylem partially obliterated; 1st longitudinally elongated and 
isodiametric stone cells; qst transversely elongated stone cells. X60. (Winton.) 



286 



NUTS. 



Endocarp (Figs. 234 and 235). This coat, known commonly as the 
shell, is a dense aggregation of stone cells, among which ran longitudi- 
nally, partially destroyed bundles. 

The stone cells have thick, deep yellow walls, branching pores, 
and dark-brown contents. They are either isodiametric or strongly 

Jst 




Fig. 235. Cocoanut. Longitudinal-radial section of shell (endocarp) through the stone 
cells and edge of bundle, qst transversely elongated and isodiametric stone cells; 1st 
longitudinally elongated stone cells; / thick-walled porous cells; g pitted vessel; sp 
spiral vessel. X300. (Winton.) 

elongated. The latter (often 20 11 long) are usually spindle- or wedge- 
shaped, although hammer-shaped, hooked and various other curious 
forms abound. 

They are arranged in groups, commonly with the longer diameters in 
tangential transverse directions and are best seen in cross sections of 
the shell {qst), but in some groups, particularly those adjoining the 
bundles, they pass longitudinally about the shell {1st). 

Groups of thinner-walled cells with dark-brown contents are occa- 
sionally met with. 



COCOANUT. 



287 



The brown contents of all the endocarp cells react the same as the 
brown impregnating material of the mesocarp. 

Vascular bundles (Fig. 234, g; Fig. 235) are studied with difficulty in 
the mature shell. By the rupture of the phloem and part of the xylem 
during growth, passages are formed, which, in shells transversely cut or 
broken, are evident to the naked eye as minute holes. The structure 




sp ,. 



Fig. 236. Cocoanut. Tangential section of outer spermoderm showing ground tissue 
of thick-walled porous cells. Most of these are empty, but a few contain brown contents 
in the form of k globules, or v films with circular openings, st colorless stone cells; 
5^ spiral trachea. X300. (Winton.) 

of the bundles is still further obscured by the presence of fungus threads 
and spores. 

In structure the bundles differ from those of the mesocarp fibers, 
the bast fibers being replaced by fomis (/) intermediate between these 
and tracheids. The vascular elements are chiefly spiral vessels {sp), 
and pitted vessels {g), the latter being especially noticeable. 

Spermoderm. i. Outer Layers. This coat consists of a ground 
tissue of large, variously shaped cells, crossing one another in all direc- 
tions (Fig. 236), between which ramify the veins. 

2. Inner Layers. Firmly attached to the endosperm are from ten 
to twenty layers of small isodiametric or sHghtly elongated cells. The 



NUTS. 




double walls are about 3 /x thick and free from pores. These cells con- 
tain a material var)dng in color from hght yellow to dark brown, which 
either fills them completely or occurs in globules, films, etc., as in some 

of the cells of the outer spermoderm. In 
the layer adjoining the endosperm the cells 
are smaller and have darker brown con- 
tents than the cells in the other layers. 

Endosperm (Fig. 237). In the outer 
layers, the prismatic cells are nearly iso- 
diametric (about 50 jj. in diameter), but 
further inward they are radially elongated, 
often reaching a length of 300 /jl. Double 
cell-walls are about 3 /< thick. According 
to T. F. Hanausek, the radial walls are 
non-porous; the tangential walls, however, 
show large, but indistinct pores, which are 
evident after heating with water or treat- 
ment with alkali. The cell-contents are 
Cross section bundles of needle-shaped fat crystals, and 

„. ^._„„^ glycerine, al . . 

aleurone grain; fer crystalloid; //fe aleurone grams, each gram usually con- 
f^hSsLk) °'^ ^''''"'''' ^^' Gaining a large crystalloid, sometimes 25 pt 

in diameter. Ether and alcohol readily 
dissolve the fat crystals and strong alkali saponifies them. The aleurone 
grains give the usual color reactions with iodine, Millon's reagent, 
and dyes. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Shredded Cocoanut is the desiccated flesh of the cocoanut reduced 
to a coarse powder. It is sold in packages for use in making pastries 
and confectionery. 

The microscopic elements are the thin-walled cells (Fig. 237) of the 
endosperm, containing large aleurone grains and fat, also occasional 
fragments of the spermoderm. 

Cocoanut Cake, the residue from the manufacture of cocoanut oil, 
is in Europe a well-known cattle food and adulterant of spices, but is 
almost unknown in the United States. The cells of the endosperm are 
distinguished from those of the palm nut by their thinner walls; the 
contents of large aleurone grains and fat are, however, much the same 
in the two species. Of no little value in diagnosis are the tissues of the 



Fig. 237. Cocoanut 
of endosperm 



COCOANUT. 289 

spermoderm, especially the porous, moderately thick-walled elements 
of the outer layers. 

Cocoanut Shells. It is stated on credible authority that in a certain 
American city several hundred tons of shells, obtained as a by-product 
in the preparation of shredded cocoanut are annually reduced to a powder 
in mills of peculiar construction and sold to spice grinders. This powder, 
without further treatment, is mixed with ground allspice, which it closclv 
resembles in appearance. By cautious roasting the color of ground 
cloves and nutmegs is matched, and by roasting at a higher temperature 
a charcoal is obtained which, mixed with starchy matter, is a clever 
imitation of black pepper. 

Powdered cocoanut shells appear to be a distinctively American 
adulterant, while cocoanut cake, which in Europe is commonly em- 
ployed both as a cattle food and as an adulterant of human foods, is 
almost unknown in America. 

All the tissue elements of the mesocarp, the endocarp and the outer 
spermoderm are present in cocoanut shell powder (Fig, 238), but the 
stone cells {st) of the endocarp make up the bulk of the material. These 
stone cells are characterized by their brown-yellow walls, their dark- 
brown contents becoming red-brown on treatment with alkali, and the 
predominance of pecuhar elongated forms. They differ in one or more 
of these characteristics from the stone cells of pepper, allspice, clove 
stems, walnut shells, almond shells. Brazil-nut shells, hazelnut shells, 
peach stones and olive stones. 

The outer spermoderm or hning of the shell also forms a consider- 
able part of the powder, the most striking elements being the thick-walled 
porous cells {p) and the vascular elements. 

Colorless cells of the mesocarp ground tissue {w) are not distinguish- 
able from the parenchyma of many other plants, but when impregnated 
with the brown substance which has been described they are striking 
objects (br). Alkali changes the color of these brown cells to a reddish 
brown, but ferric chloride does not produce any immediate effect, thus 
distinguishing them from the brown cells of allspice seed, the color of 
which alkali removes and ferric chloride changes at once to a 
green. 

Spiral, reticulated, and pitted vessels {sp, t, and g), from the meso- 
carp, endocarp, and spermoderm bundles, are also frequently met with 
in the powder, the pitted vessels being quite unhke any vascular ele- 
ments of the spices. 



290 



NUTS. 



The stegmata {ste) of the mesocarp fibers with their sihcious con- 
tents are characteristic, but they are difficult to find owing to the ^^reat 



^ 




Fig. 238. Cocoanut shell. Elements in powder form, st dark-yellow stone cells with 

brown contents; t reticulated vessel; sp spiral vessel; g pitted vessel; iv colorless, and 

. i/- brown parenchyma of mesocarp; / bast fibers with 5/e stegmata. X160. (Winton.) 

preponderance of other tissues. Bast fibers (/) are more hable to be 
encountered than stegmata, but they furnish less conclusive evidence. 

Spices adulterated with charred cocoanut shells show under the 
microscope black, opaque fragments which are not bleached by aqua 
regia, or nitric acid and potassium chlorate. Except in cases where 
some of the stone cells or other elements have escaped charring, this 
material cannot be distinguished from other forms of charcoal. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Benecke (2); Bohmer, (6, 10, 23); Col- 
lin et Perrot (9); Hanausek, T. F. (16, 17, 48); Harz (18); Moeller (29); Planchon 
et Collin (34); Vogl (45). 

Moeller: Die Rohstoffe des Tischler- und Drechslergewerbes. Cassel. 1884. 
WrNTON: The Anatomy of the Fruit of Cocos nucijera. Amer. Jour. Sci. 1901, 
12, 265. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1901, 208. Amer. Jour. Pharm. 1901, 
73, 523. 

PALn=NUT. 

Closely related to the cocoanut, although differing greatly from it in 
macroscopic appearance, is the drupaceous fruit of the oil-palm {Elaeis 
Guineensis L.). 



PALM-NUT. 291 

The palm fruit is about the size of a date and has a deep-red, oily 
fruit llesh or mesocarp, and a hard endocarp. Within the thin, brown 
spermodcrm is a blue-gray endosperm containing a minute embryo, and 
within the endosperm is a small cleft corresponding to the large cavity 
of the cocoanut. 

Palm oil is expressed from the seed, which has previously been freed 
from the mesocarp and the greater part of the endocarp. 

HISTOLOGY. 

After shelling, a few stone cells of the endocarp often remain attached 
to the spermoderm. These, in surface view, are polygonal with distinct 
pores. 

The Spermoderm (Fig. 239, s) is composed of several layers of thin- 
walled, tangentially elongated cells, those in one layer often crossing 
those of the adjoining layer. The 

outer cells contain a brown sub- =_-, ^ ^^' 

stance, the inner, a material which, ^^" j? s 

accorchng to T. F. Hanausek, be- ^- ^ ^ jfi^fWl^f^TT 

comes lemon-yellow 'with alkah. f^r^ r "!^^^'<^\®(T('^ 

The Endosperm (Fig. 239, E) tfe ^i^^^^n <^^W 

of the palm-nut is distinguished \r J^\f if^l/ \p-'^'^f^ E 

from that of the cocoanut by the J^fi. -Y^i&l p^^V 

thicker walls (double 5 n) and more TlT'lMlS^f^^^ ^ 

distinct pores, the walls, in section, \^ \f^\ 1 \~\P' 1 I'' 

havmg a knotty appearance. As "^ | ^ / lO^r^l^ 

a rule, the cells are radially elon- fl^ I ' f^^ ^ 

gated. Masses of fat crystals and \)^^ ^ I ll 

aleurone grains are the most con- ||'''^f 

spicuous cell-contents. T. F. V|^lJj 

Hanausek states that crvstals of ^^^ ^39. Palm-nut {Ehei, Gniueensis). 

. ' Outer portion of seed in cross section. 

fatty acids grouped in bundles are 5 spermoderm; E endosperm containing 

also present. Globular aleurone « aleurone grains. Xi6o. (Moeller.) 
grains {a), each containing a large crystalloid, may be seen in water 
or glycerine mounts, but are best studied after successive treatment 
with tincture of iodine and very dilute hydrochloric acid. This latter 
procedure, recommended by Hanausek, colors the grains yellow, the 
brilliant cr^'stalloid being clearly seen through the transparent proteid 
envelope. In the inner layers, the aleurone grains are often 25 /i in 
diameter, in the outer layers, much smaller. 



292 NUTS. 



DIAGNOSIS. 



Palm Cake and the meal prepared from it is imported from Africa 
into Europe for cattle feeding. It is also much used as an adulterant 
of pepper. 

This product is distinguished from cocoanut cake by the distinctly 
porous, knotty-thickened walls of the endosperm (Fig. 239, E). Tissues 
of the spermoderm (5) and endocarp are also of service in identi- 
fication. 

The aleurone grains (a), fat masses, and bundles of raphides, which 
make up the bulk of the material, are rendered distinct by treatment 
with iodine tincture followed by dilute hydrochloric acid. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Benecke (2); Bohmer (6, 10, 23); Collin 
(8); Hanausek, T. F. (10, 16, 17, 48); Harz (18); jNIoeller (29); Schimper (37); 
Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (45). 

Emmerling: Ueber Palmkernkuchen und mehl. Landw. Vers. -Stat. 1898, 50, 5. 
Hanausek, T. F.: Ueber die Frucht der Oelpalme. Ztschr. allgem. osterr. Apoth.- 

Ver. 1882, 15, 325. 
KoBUS: Kraftfutter und seine Verfalschung. Landw. Jahrb.' 1884, 13, 813. 
Meyer, A.: Ueber die Oelpalme. Arch. Pharm. 1884, 22, 713. 
jSIgeller: Ueber afrikanische Oelsamen. Dingl. polyt. Jour. 1880, 238, 252. 

WAX=PALn. 

The seed of the wax-palm {Corypha cerijera L., Copernica cerijera 
Mart.) for a long time has been used in Brazil as a coffee substitute and 
in recent years has been introduced into Europe. 

The seed, similar in size and shape to a small acorn, is of a hght-brown 
color with irregular, dark-brown, longitudinal striations. The inner 
surface of the spermoderm and the adhering outer surface of the endo- 
sperm are deeply wrinkled. A small embryo is embedded in the endo- 
sperm at the base of the seed near the hilum. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The Spermoderm consists of: (i) two or more layers of small, thin- 
walled, polygonal cells; (2) several layers of large, isodiametric or shghtly 
elongated, rounded, sclerenchyma cells with moderately thick, porous 
walls, and numerous intercellular spaces; and (3) a thick tissue of paren- 
chvmatous elements. 



IV^X-P/ILM. jyORY-NUT. 293 

Endosperm. As regards the structure of the endosperm, the seeds 
belong in the same class with the coffee bean, the ivory-nut, the date 
stone and other seeds with carbohydrate reserve material largely in the 
form of cellulose. The cell-walls are porous, somewhat thinner than 
those of the date endosperm. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Villiers et Collin (42); see also Bibliog- 
raphy of Coffee: Brunotte; Konig. 

IVORY=NUT. 

Several species of the genus Phytdephas, of which P. macrocarpa 
R. et P. is the most important, yield the true ivory-nuti or vegetable 
ivory used in making buttons and other articles. The sawdust and 
similar refuse, after being roasted, has been mixed with coffee and pos- 
sibly other ground food products. 

The true ivory-nut, as it appears in commerce, is of about the size 
of a hen's egg, but is shaped more hke a segment of an orange. It con- 
sists of a brittle shell (the inner pericarp), gray on the surface, but 
dark within, and inclosed in this a large seed with a thin, brown spermo ■ 
derm. The endocarp and seed are grown together during the earlier 
stages of development, but when fully ripe, the endosperm together with 
most of the spermoderm shrinks away from the endocarp and becomes 
loose in the cavity. On the surface of the loose seed may be seen the 
raphe and its numerous branches, also near the hilum, a wart-Hke pro- 
tuberance beneath which is a small cavity containing the germ. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Pericarp. Three layers of the pericarp form the shell. 

1. The Outer Layer is made up of several layers of thickly porous, 
colorless cells arranged in radial rows Hke cork cells. 

2. Palisade Cells. These remarkable cells, brought to notice by 
Molisch, are 500 p. high and 40-90 jx broad, with thickened inner and 
side walls of a dark-brown color. The side walls diminish in thickness 
toward the top, the cavity being as a consequence funnel-shaped. 
What is most remarkable of all is the presence in each cell of a silicous 
body entirely lilHng the cavity. These bodies may be clearly seen after 
reducing sections to an ash and dissolving out other mineral matter with 
hydrochloric acid. 



294 



NUTS. 



3. Collapsed Cells form a thin layer beneath the pahsade cells. 
Spermoderm (Fig. 240, S). i. Sclerenchyma Fibers with dark con- 
tents, crossing one another in the different layers, form the outer coat. 

The separation of the pericarp from the seed takes place in the 
layer through which ramify the raphe and its branches, the outer portion 

of the spermoderm remaining attached 
to the inner surface of the pericarp. 

2. Inner Layers. Large, nearly 
isodiametric cells with thick walls, 
but without evident pores, complete 
the spermoderm. These are shown 
at the left in Fig. 241. 





Fig. 240. Ivory-nut {Phytelephas macro- 
car pa). Cross section of outer layers. S 
spermoderm; E endosperm with thick- 
ened cell walls. (MOELLER.) 



Fig. 241. Ivory-nut. Elements of 
spermoderm. Xi6o. (Moeller.) 



The Endosperm (Fig. 240, E) of the ivory-nut is the most striking 
of all the examples of reserve material in the form of cellulose. The 
cell-walls are on the average about 35 /i thick and often exceed 50 jx. 
Penetrating these walls are conspicuous pores, which broaden at the 
middle lamella. Most of the cells are radially elongated. 



DIAGNOSIS. 



Ivory-nut powder, a material used as an adulterant of coffee, is identi- 
fied by the enormously thickened ceU-walls of the endosperm (Fig. 240), 
also by the tissues of the spermoderm (Fig. 241) and pericarp. The 
only materials with which it might be confounded are ground date stones 
and Polynesian ivory-nuts. The date stone seldom has cell-walls as 



POLYNESIAN lyORY-NUT. EUROPEAN IVALNUT. 295 

thick as those in the ivory-nut, furthermore, the tissues of the spermoderm 
are different. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (23); Hanausek, T. F. (16, 17, 
48); Moeller (29); Planchon et Collin (34); Vogl (45). 
Hanausek, T. F.: Ueber einige, gegenwartig im Wiener Handel vorkommende 

Gewiirzfalschungen. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1894, 8, 95. 
MOLiscH: Die Kieselzellen in der Steinschale der Steinnuss. Centr.-Org. Waarenk. 

Techn. 1891, 103. 
Moeller: Die Rohstoffe des Tischler- und Drechslergewerbes. Cassel, 1884. 

POLYNESIAN IVORY-NUT. 

Of late years, seeds of several species of Coclococcus known as Poly- 
nesian or Tahiti ivory-nuts have been substituted for true ivory-nuts, 
and their by-products, quite probably, have been utilized for adulterat- 
ing foods. 

T. F. Hanausek finds that these seeds differ from true ivory-nuts 
in having: (i) longer but narrower endosperm cells; (2) more conspicu- 
ous middle lamellae; (3) diagonal markings on the cell- walls as seen in 
section; and last but most important, crystals of calcium oxalate as cell- 
contents. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Hanausek, T. F.: Zur Anatomic der Tahitinuss. Ztschr. allgem. osterr. Apoth.- 
Ver., 1880, 13, 360. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1893, 7, 197. 



WALNUTS {JtiglandacecB). 

The fruits are 2-4 celled, with a rather thick, leathery mesocarp 
and a hard, 2-4 celled endocarp or nut shell. The seed consists largely 
of a curiously furrowed embryo with reserve material in the form of 
fat and proteid matter. The endocarp is made up of a dense mass of 
colorless stone cells. Characteristic of the spermoderm are the large 
stomata. 

EUROPEAN WALNUT. 

The walnut tree {Juglans regia L.), a native of Asia, is extensively 
cultivated throughout the central and southern regions of Europe, par- 
ticularly in France, Italy, Spain, and Greece, also within the past few 



296 



NUTS. 



years in California. As European nuts reach America by way of Eng- 
land they are known there as EngHsh walnuts. 

Inclosed by the husk, the fruit is usually 4-8 cm. long and about 
two-thirds as broad. When dry the epicarp and strongly scented 
mesocarp separate from the nut proper, consisting of the shell or endo- 
carp and the seed. The nut is light brown, ovoid, short-pointed, and 
marked on the surface by shallow furrows and depressions. Encircling 
it longitudinally is a suture, into which a knife-blade may be easily in- 
serted, thus separating the shell into two equal segments. Thin par- 
titions divide the cavity imperfectly into four cells at the base and two 
at the top. The curiously wrinkled and lobed orthotropous seed, con- 
forming in shape to the embryo, is covered with a thin, brownish-yellow 
skin or spermoderm. The embryo has two large cotyledons arranged 
at right angles to a plane passing through the suture and partially 
separated from each other by a thin partition; each cotyledon is deeply 
lobed, the lobes being separated by another partition at right angles 
to the first. The relatively small, pointed radicle is directed upward. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Only the endocarp and seed need be studied, as the epicarp and 
mesocarp are removed before the nuts are marketed. 

Pericarp. Sect ons of the shell are cut with a strong blade or are 
obtained by grinding on an oil stone (p. 13). 

I. The Outer Endocarp (Fig. 242), the hardest part of the shell, is 

a dense aggregate of nearly isodiametric 
cells with almost colorless walls so strongly 
thickened that the lumen is scarcely evi- 
dent. 

2. Middle Endocarp (m). The cells in- 
crease in size and the walls diminish in 
thickness in the middle layers, the thick- 
ness of the walls in most of the cells being 
much less than the breadth of the lumen. 
Many of the cells have irregularly concave 
faces, a peculiarity noticeable even in 
powdered shells. 

3. The Inner Endocarp (/") is a loose 
parenchyma with thin, brownish walls becoming darker on addition of 
alkaU. 




Fig. 242. Walnut (Juglans regia). 
Tissues of shell, a stone rells 
.of outer layer; tft stone cells 
of middle layer; i parenchyma 
of inner layer. Xi6o. (Moel- 

LER.) 



EUROPEAN IVALNUT. 297 

Spermoderm. The seed may be easily sectioned without special 
preparation. The cell structure should be studied after treatment with 
Javelle water and staining; the aleurone grains, in sections mounted 
directly in turpentine or, after extraction with ether, in glycerine. 

1. Outer Epidermis. As may be seen in cross section, the thin- 
walled, prismatic cells, containing yellow or brown material, are more 
or less radially elongated, and often divided by tangential partitions. 
In surface view they are sharply polygonal. The large stomata, often 
broader than long, are very noticeable. 

2. The Middle Layers are composed of compressed yellow-brown cells 
which do not usually assume their original form on treatment with 
Javelle water. 

3. Inner Epidermis. The cells of this layer are also compressed, 
but on soaking in Javelle water swell to their original form. 

Perisperm. The hyahne membrane, forming what appears to be 
the thickened outer wall of the endosperm, is probably the remains of 
the perisperm. 

Endosperm. The outer cell layer of the seed flesh, although usu- 
ally firmly attached to the second layer, is sharply differentiated from 
the latter, the two layers being separated by a thick membrane. This 
outer layer is endosperm. Seen in surface view, the polygonal cells are 
15-40 fji in diameter and have thick walls. They resemble the aleurone 
cells of cereals. 

Embryo. The cells are of the usual thin-walled parenchymatous 
type and contain irregular aleurone grains up to 10 /jl in diameter, also 
oil globules. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The Seeds or "meats" are largely used in foods, either whole or 
chopped. The residue from the manufacture of walnut oil is obtained 
in limited amount in Europe and is utilized as a cattle food. 

The most conspicuous elements are the polygonal outer epidermal 
cells of the spermoderm and the broad stomata. 

Ground Walnut Shells are in Europe a common adulterant of spices. 
The elements are of three forms: (i) the small but thick- walled, color- 
less stone cells (Fig. 242, a) of the outer layers; (2) the colorless stone 
cells (m) of the middle layers, characterized by their large size, broad lu- 
men, and irregular, here and there concave, outline; (3) the loosely 
united cells (i) of the inner layers, with thin, 3'cllow or brown walls. 



298 ^6^5. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (23); Collin et Perrot (9); Han- 
ausek, T. F. (10, 16); Mace (26); Moeller (29); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (45). 
GODFRIN: Etude histologiquesurles tegument seminaux des Angiospermes. Soc. d. Sci. 

d. Nancy. 1880, 109. 
Hartwich: Ueber die Fruchtschale von Juglans regia. Arch. d. Pharm., 1887,25, 

325- 
Pfister: Wallnusskuchen. Landw. Vers. -Stat. 1894, IS, 448. 



BLACK WALNUT. 

The black walnut tree {Juglans nigra L.), a native of America, is 
valuable chiefly for its wood. The globular nut is about the same size 
and shape as the European walnut, but has an exceedingly rough endo- 
carp with deep furrows and numerous sharp, branching ridges. 

Notwithstanding these differences, the two nuts have much the same 
microscopic structure. The aleurone grains are somewhat smaller in 
the American species, but the difference is too slight to be decisive. 

The nut is seldom found on the market. 

BUTTERNUT. 

This American nut, the fruit of Juglans cinerea L., differs from the 
black walnut chiefly in being elongated, and sharply pointed at both 
ends. The structure of the two is practically the same. 

PECAN NUT. 

One of the most valuable native nuts of the United States, is the 
pecan nut {Carya oHvaejormis Nutt.), produced by wild and cultivated 
trees in the central and central southern states. 

The nut is smooth, elongated, 3-4 cm. long, taper-pointed, and very 
indistinctly six-ribbed. It is divided at the base into two cells. Although 
small, the meats have a mild, delicious flavor, and are much used in 
confectionery, while the shells are available for adulterating spices. 

In structure both the seed and shell are much like those of the 
Eno-lish walnut. The aleurone grains are, however, somewhat smaller, 
seldom exceeding 6 /t in diameter. 



HICKORY-NUT. CHESTNUT. 299 



HICKORY=NUT. 

In addition to the pecan tree, various others of the same genus yield 
edible nuts, of whicli the shellbark or shagbark hickory-nut, (C. alha 
Nutt.) is the most valuable, and is the only one gathered in considerable 
amount for the market. The somewhat tiattened nut of this species is 
about 3 cm. long and nearly as broad, the light colored, more or less 
angular but otherwise smooth surface, being marked with six indistinct 
ribs ending abruptly in a sharp point at the apex. 

The structure of the hickory-nut is the same as that of the pecan nut. 



CUP NUTS iCupulifercB). 

These nuts are usually borne in an involucre or cup. The pericarp 
is horny or leather)', with stone cell layers. The single seed consists 
largely of embr\'o, which is either starchy (acorn, chestnut) or fatty 
(beech-nut, hazelnut). The hairs of the pericarp and sperm oderm are 
often of service in diagnosis, as are also the starch grains of the two 
species named. 

CHESTNUT. 

The European or Spanish chestnut {Castanea sativa Mill.), the Ameri- 
can variety (C sativa var. Americana Michx.), and the Japanese chest- 
nut (C. crenata Sieb. et Zucc.) are all forest trees of great value, not 
only for their timber but for their edible nuts. In Spain, southern France, 
Italy, and other countries bordering on the Mediterranean, chestnuts 
form a staple article of diet with the poorer classes, while in other 
European countries and in America they are regarded more as delicacies. 

Spanish and Japanese chestnuts are large, 2.5 cm. or more broad, 
whereas those of the American variety are only 1.5-2.5 cm. broad. 
Commonly 2-3, rarely 4-7, nuts are enclosed within a densely spiny 
involucre or burr which does not open until the nuts reach full maturity. 
The outer nuts in the burr are plano-convex, the inner flattened on both 
sides. At the base they are broad and rounded, at the apex pointed 
with more or less of the style attached. The dark brown, leathery peri- 
carp is smooth and glossy, except on the broad scar at the base, where 
it is dull and lusterless, and near the point, where it is hairy. On the 



300 NUTS. 

inner surface it is covered with a dense mat of silky hairs. The thin, 
brown spermoderm separating readily from the seed, is sparingly pubes- 
cent on the outer surface, but on the inner surface is smooth, although 
marked by irregular ribs corresponding to the furrows on the surface 
of the cotyledons. The flesh of the large cotyledons is starchy, and 
when dry is readily reduced to a powder. It has a sweet taste. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Fresh or dried nuts of either the Spanish or American chestnut may 
be used for laborator}^ work. 

Pericarp. Transverse sections, also tangential sections at different 
depths may be cut with a strong razor and examined both with and with- 
out treatment with alkali. 

1. Epicarp. The cells are polygonal or quadrilateral, either iso- 
diametric or longitudinally elongated, in the latter case often arranged 
end to end in irregular rows. Their contents are of a deep-brown color. 
Hairs are present at maturity only about the apex, although hair scars 
are found on other parts. They are pointed or rather blunt, 2-3 mm. 
long, and vary greatly in breadth and wall-thickness. The breadth 
of the lumen in the larger hairs is greater than the thickness of the walls, 
but in the case of the smaller hairs the reverse is often true. 

2. Sclerenchyma. The cells of the outer layers, as appears from 
cross sections, are radially elongated, often 50 jx high, and have thick 
walls. In tangential section they are either isodiametric or longitudi- 
nally elongated, the walls being deeply sinuous and much folded, remind- 
ing us of the intestine cells of capsicum. Their shorter diameter is usu- 
ally over 25 ji. In the middle layers the cells are smaller than in the 
outer, have relatively thicker walls, and are polygonal in outhne; while 
in the inner layers large cells with broad lumen predominate. The 
structure of the tissues beneath the scar varies somewhat from those 
described and many of the cells contain large oxalate crystals. 

3. Mesocarp. Longitudinally elongated, more or less quadrilateral 
cells with very thick, beaded walls form the middle layers of the peri- 
carp. The cell-contents are colored brown and the cell-walls yellow- 
brown. Intercellular spaces frequently occur at the comers of the cells 
and between the side walls. Fibro-vascular bundles with strongly de- 
veloped bast tissues run through the mesocarp. 

4. Endocarp. This layer is itself inconspicuous owing to the dense 
mat of hairs forming the woolly hning of the pericarp. The hairs vary 



CHESTNUT. 



301 



Up to several millimeters in length and up to 35 /x in breadth. They are 
pointed, often crooked, and have broad lumen and very thin walls. 

Spermoderm. This coat may be separated from the seed as a papery 
brown membrane. 

1. The Outer Epidermis consists of polygonal cells up to 50 n in 
diameter, interspersed with hairs similar to those on the endocarp. 

2. Middle Layer. The loose tissue of brown cells traversed by fibro- 
vascular bundles is of little interest. 

3. An Inner Epidermis of polygonal cells without hairs completes 
the spermoderm. 

Embryo. The parenchymatous tissue of the cotyledons contains 
numerous starch grains (Fig. 243) up to 30 /i in diameter. Among 
the large grains are ovoid, pear-shaped, fusiform, rounded triangular, 
polygonal, and various irregular forms, often with wart-like excres- 
cences. The hilum is commonly eccentric, indistinct, and may or may 
not have radiating clefts. With suitable illumination, rings are clearly 
evident. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Chestnut Meal is a food product of considerable importance in south- 
ern Europe, where it is made into puddings, cakes, and even into bread. 
Starch (Fig. 243) is the predominating element. The large grains are 




Fig. 243. Chestnut Starch {Castanea vesca). X600. (Moeller.') 

less than 30 ,« in diameter, and are of the various irregular forms 
already noted, with inconspicuous, eccentric hilum. Hairs from the peri- 



302 NUTS. 

carp or spermoderm, like those of the acorn, beech -nut, and hazelnut, 
are remarkable for their thin walls and broad lumen. 

Chestnut Shells are characterized by the thin-walled hairs, the 
sclerenchyma cells with thick, sinuous walls, and the thick-walled, beaded 
mesocarp. 

BICLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hanausek, T. F. (16); Harz (18); Vogl 
(45); Wiesner (48). 
Godfrin: Etude histologiquesurles tegument seminauxdesAngiospermes. Soc. d. Sci. 

d. Nancy. 1880, 109. 
Hanausek, T. F.: Zur mikroskopischen Charakteristik des Kastanienmehles. Beilage 

der Ztschr. f. Landw. Gewerbe. Dobruska, 1883, No. i, 3. 

ACORN. 

Several European species of oak, notably Quercus Cerris L., Q. pedun- 
culata Ehrh., Q. sessiliflora SaHsb., and Q. pubescens Willd., yield edible 
acorns, the kernels of which are used chiefly for making a substitute 
for coffee known as acorn coffee. In America, acorns are produced in 
large quantities by numerous native species and are eaten on the ground 
by swine, but as yet are not gathered for the market. 

Whatever the species producing it, the acorn is characterized by its 
well-known form, the short wart at the apex, its smooth surface, and 
the circular scar at the base. The cup-shaped, scaly involucre (the 
cupule) in some species is shallow, in others deep, nearly covering the 
acorn. The pericarp is made up of a hard outer coat and soft inner 
tissues of a deep brown color, the innermost layer or endocarp being either 
smooth or densely woolly. A thin, brown spermoderm incloses the 
embryo, the latter consisting of two large fleshy cotyledons and a small 
radicle. Endosperm is lacking. 

HISTOLOGY. > 

The structure of acorns of different species is very similar, the 
chief differences being in the presence or absence of hairs on the en- 
docarp and the size of the starch grains. 

Cupule. I. The Outer Epidermis consists of polygonal cells averag- 
ing 14 fi in diameter interspersed with numerous pointed hairs varying up 
to 700 jj. in length. In the inner half of each hair the lumen is broad, 

' Free use has been made of the descriptions of Mitlacher, who has studied the cupule, 
pericarp, and spermoderm of Quercus sessiliflora. 



ACORN. 



303 



but toward the apex it is reduced to a narrow line. At the base the hairs 
are somewhat constricted owing to pressure of adjoining cells. 

2. Middle Layers. In a ground tissue of thin- or moderately thick- 
walled chlorophyl parenchyma are distributed numerous stone cells 
occurring either singly or in small groups. These cells vary in form 
and are usually between 100 and 200 ix in diameter. The soHtary cells 
have thinner walls than those in groups and often contain crystal clusters 
of calcium oxalate. The bicollateral bundles are accompanied on the 
outer side by sclerenchyma fibers and rows of crystal chambers. 

3. The Inner Epidermis is much hke the outer in structure. 

Pericarp, i. The Epicarp (Fig. 244, epi; Fig. 245) on the lower part 
of the fruit is made up of cubical cells regularly arranged in rows, form- 




mes 



Fig. 244. Acorn {Quercus sp.). Tissues of shell in cross fection. epi epicarp; st crystal 
cells and stone ceils; mes mesocarp. (Moellek.) 



ing a highly characteristic tissue. These cells contain colorless drops 
in a brown ground substance. On the upper end in many species are 
numerous hairs (Fig. 247, i) similar to those of the cupule. 

2. Crystal Layer. An interrupted hypodermal layer of thin-walled, 
isodiametric cells, each containing a large rhombohedral crystal of cal- 
cium oxalate, is clearly seen both in transverse and tangential sections. 



304 



NUTS. 



3. Stone Cells (Fig. 244, sf). Radially elongated, spindle-shaped 
cells up to 56 fi long and 10-20 /i broad, with thick, sparingly porous, 
an<^ indistinctly stratified walls and narrow lumen make up the outer 
three or four layers. In the inner layers these pass by degrees into 
isodiametric cells with walls narrower than the lumen. 

At the apex of the fruit the dense stone cell tissue is replaced by a 
brown parenchyma in which are numerous small stone cells with brown 
walls and contents and broad lumen. Similar cells form a second hard 
layer further inward. The stone cells of the basal portion of the peri- 
carp have characteristic branching pores. 

4. Outer Mesocarp (Figs. 244, 7nes). The loosely united cells of 
tliis tissue in the ripe fruit are much compressed. The only noticeable 





Fig. 245. Acorn. Epicarp 
in surface view. Xi6o. 

(MOELLER.) 



Fig. 246. Acorn. Brown parenchyma of pericarp. 

X160, (MOELLER.) 



cell-contents are occasional crystal clusters of calcium oxalate. Through 
this tissue pass the fibro-vascular bundles 

5. Inner Mesocarp. A spongy parenchyma (Fig. 246) of cells arranged 
end to end in longitudinal rows forms a characteristic tissue. In cross 
section these cells are round, in tangential section elongated with 
numerous connecting arms. The contents are yellow-brown. 

6, The Endocarp is characterized by the numerous exceedingly thin- 
walled hairs (Fig. 247, 2), also by the presence of small crystals of vari- 
ous forms. 

The Spermoderm is thicker over the furrows of the cotyledons than 
in other parts. 

1. Outer Epidermis. The thin-walled, tabular cells are polygonal 
in surface view, both the walls and the contents being of a deep brown 
color. Hairs from this layer are shown in Fig. 247, 3. 

2. The Middle Layers, through which ramify the bundles, consist 
of a loose brown parenchyma containing crystals of various forms. 

3. The Inner Epidermis is much the same as the outer. 



ACORN. 



30S 



Embryo (Fig. 248). The polygonal epidermal and subepidermal 
cells of the cotyledons contain distinct nuclei, each inclosing a crystalloid. 
Similar nuclei occur along with starch grains in the small subepidermal 
cells. The remainder of the tissue is a parenchyma with round cells 
about 100 /x in diameter, having very small intercellular spaces at the 
angles. They are closely filled with elKpsoidal or irregular elongated 
starch grains {st) usually 15-20 /z, rarely and only in some varieties, 




Fig. 247. Acorn, Hairs: i from epicarp; 2 from endocarp; 3 from spermoderm. 

(MOELLER.) 

50 n long with very distinct, elongated hilum. The grains usually occur 
singly, although twins and various larger aggregates similar to those 
found in tapioca, sago, and buckwheat are not uncommon. The ellip- 
soidal forms remind us of the leguminous starches. Fibro- vascular 
bundles with small spiral vessels pass through the ground tissue. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Acorn Coffee is a product of considerable importance. It is pre- 
pared from the shelled nut and should contain only traces of the tissues 
of the pericarp and spermoderm. The conspicuous elements are the 
ellipsoidal or irregularly elongated starch grains (Fig. 248, st) with elon- 



3o6 NUTS. 

gated hilum, reminding us of leguminous starch. These are distorted in 
the roasted product. 

Acorn Flour is mixed with chocolate and other food preparations. 

Acorn Shells are used as an adulterant of acorn coffee and possibly 
of other food products. The quadrilateral epicarp cells (Fig. 245) in reg- 
ular rows overlying the crystal cells, the spindle-shaped stone cells (Fig. 
244, St) with narrow lumen, also other forms with broad lumen, and 




Fig. 248. Acorn. Elements of cotyledon, ep epidermis; E parenchyma; st starch; 
sp spiral vessel. X300. (Moeller.) 

finally the exceedingly thin-walled hairs (Fig. 247), are the tissues of most 
importance in diagnosis. 

The Cupule is also said to serve as an adulterant. The geniculate 
hairs of the outer epidermis with constricted base, also the stone cells 
of the middle layers are the elements of diagnostic value. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Hanausek, T. F. (10, 16); 
Harz (18); Hassell (19); Mace (26); Moeller (29); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (43, 45). 
Hager: Ueber Eichelkakao und Chokolade. Pharm. Ztg. 1888, .33, 511. 
Hanausek, T. F.: Mikroskopische Untersuchung eines hollandischen Eichelkakao. 

Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1887, 1, 247. 
MiCHAELiS: Eichelkakao, Eichelchokolade. Pharm. Ztg. 1888, 3.3, 568. 
IMiTLACHER: Die Fruchthiillen der Eichel (Fructus Quercus sessiliflorae) und ihre 

mikroskopische Feststellung als Beimengung zum Eichelkaffee. Ztschr. allg. 

osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1901, 39, i. 
Tardieu: Eichelmehl enthaltendes Weizenmehl. Ann. chim. analyt. 1898, 3, 307. 
Tschirch: Untersuchung der Eichel-Kakaosorten des Handels. Pharm. Ztg. 1886, 

32, 190. 



BEECH-NUT. 307 



BEECH=NUT. 



The European beech (Fagiis sylvatlca L.) and the American species 
(jp. jerruginea Ait.) yield nuts which, Hke the walnuts, contain no starch 
but a high percentage of oil. Beech-nuts arc collected on a commercial 
scale in the forests of Europe for oil production, the cake being utilized 
as a cattle food. Owing to the presence of cholin the cake is poisonous 
for horses, but is not injurious to bovine cattle or swine. 

The American beech grows in abundance in the eastern half of the 
United States. In Virginia and other states the nuts are eaten by swine 
as they drop from the tree, the ham and bacon of these animals being 
especially prized for their fine flavor; but in most sections they fall a 
prey to squirrels and other wild animals. 

The brown nuts are triangular, winged near the apex, and clothed 
with a coat of minute hairs hardly visible except under a lens. Two 
of these nuts are borne in a prickly involucre or cupule, which sphts 
into four valves. The ovary is trilocular, each with two ovules, but the 
partition wall disappears during development and only one ovule reaches 
maturity, completely filling the fruit cavity. Remains of the partitions 
are evident on the inner surface of the pericarp as ridges running through 
the middle of the three sides. Silky hairs occur in some numbers along 
these ridges. The brown spermoderm is of thin papery texture and 
is united with a still thinner endosperm. Running through one of the 
angles is the raphe, which sends off several distinct branches running 
through the other two angles as well as in the tissues between. At first 
sight the embryo appears homogeneous, but on closer inspection is 
seen to consist of much folded cotyledons connected with a minute radicle. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Either the European or American beech-nut may be used for study, 
as both are essentially the same in structure. 

Pericarp. Transverse sections are cut from the middle of the sides 
and at the angles, also tangential sections at different depths. 

I. The Epicarp Cells are polygonal with moderately thin, faintly 
beaded walls and contain either a brown homogeneous material or well- 
formed crystals. The hairs of this layer are short, pointed, and usually 
thick-walled. Hanausek notes that thin-walled, twisted hairs, also 
multicellular forms are occasionally found. 



3oS NUTS. 

2. Sclerenchyma. Stone cells in 5-10 layers form a dense hypo- 
dermal tissue about the nut. These are rounded, nearly isodiametric, 
and have thick and distinctly porous walls and brown or yellow-brown 
contents. 

3. The Mesocarp consists of several layers of tangentially elongated 
parenchyma cells with thick, porous walls, impregnated with brown 
coloring matter. As appears in cross section, large V-shaped bundles 
of bast fibers pass through the brown parenchyma in the angles, 
strengthening the tissues. In the inner portion of the layer broad fibro- 
vascular bundles with strongly developed bast fibers form an almost 
continuous layer. Accompanying the bundles are crystal fibers. 

4. The Endocarp is of parenchyma cells interspersed about the par- 
tition wall with long, thin-walled hairs. 

Spermoderm. i. Epidermis. The cells are polygonal, often over 50// 
in diameter and have deep brown walls, which Pfister notes are sub- 
erizcd. 

2. Brown Parenchyma Cells similar to those of the epidermis but 
smaller, form one or two subepidermal layers. 

3. A Spongy Parenchyma of colorless compressed cells, and 

4. An Inner Epidermis of thin-walled elements completes the sperom- 
dcrm. 

Endosperm. Adhering to the inner surface of the spermoderm is 
a single layer of thick-walled, polygonal aleurone cells forming the endo- 
sperm. 

Embryo. The epidermis on the inner sides of the cotyledons has 
larger cells than on the outer. Both layers have thickened outer walls. 
The ground tissue in the outer portion of the cotyledon consists of iso- 
diametric cells passing into one or more layers of palisade cells in the 
inner portion. Procambium bundles occur in the middle layers. The 
cell-contents are aleurone grains up to 15 /i, fat, and calcium oxalate 
rosettes. Hanausek notes that a single rosette is present in each cell 
as may be seen after treatment with alkali. 

. DIAGNOSIS. 

U ndecorticated Beech-nut Cake can be easily identified by the tissues 
of the pericarp and spermoderm, provided fragments sufficiently large 
for cutting sections are present; otherwise the task is not an easy one 
as the tissues, although both striking and varied, are not especially char- 
acteristic in surface view. The epicarp with short, usually thick-walled 



BEECH-NUT. HAZELNUT. 309 

hairs, the isodiametric stone cells, the bundles accompanied by bast 
fibers and crystal fibers, and the long, thin-walled hairs of the endocarp, 
are the most striking elements. 

Decorticated Beech-nut Cake is still more dil^cult of diagnosis. The 
tissues of the cotyledons are much the same as those of numerous other 
oil seeds, and the brown cells of the spermoderm in surface view are not 
distinctive. Tissues of the pericarp, particularly the hairs, are however 
present even in decorticated cake, and on these the microscopist must 
largely depend in forming his conclusion. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (23); Collin et Perrot (9); Ha- 
nausek, T. F. (17, 48); Harz (18). 
PnsTER: Buchnusskuchen. Landw. Vers. -Stat. 1894, 43, 445. 

HAZELNUT. 

The hazelnut is of no httle importance in Europe both as a table 
nut and for the production of hazel oil ("nut oil "), which is used on the 
table and in the arts. 

The numerous European and Asiatic varieties have probably been 
derived from three species: the common hazel {Corylus Avellana L.), 
Lambert's hazel or filbert (C. tubulosa L.), and the Turkish hazel 
(C. colurna L.), of which the Spanish or cobnut (C. pontic.a Koch) is 
perhaps but a variety. Three native Am.erican species (C. Americana 
Walt., C. rostrata Ait., and C. Calijornica Rose.) also yield nuts of 
excellent quahty, but are not as yet cultivated. 

The nuts of all the species named are inclosed in a leafy involucre 
consisting of two more or less fohaceous members, which in C. tubulosa, 
C. rostrata, and C. Calijornica is prolonged into a narrow tube, but in 
the other species is short and open. The nuts of the various species and 
varieties differ both in size and in the ratio of breadth to length. They 
have a broad circular scar at the base, and a short blunt point. On 
the lower portion they are smooth, on the upper covered with a gray 
bloom consisting of numerous minute hairs visible only under a lens. 
The pericarp or shell consists of a hard outer coat 1-2 mm. thick and 
a brown spongy inner coat. Through the outer part of the hard coat, 
corresponding to longitudinal streaks visible from without, pass fibro- 
vascular bundles which in cross section appear as dark-brown spots in 
the Hght-colored, woody ground tissue. One, rarely two, hemitropous 



NUTS. 



nuts are suspended from the top of the cavity. Each seed consists largely 
of fleshy cotyledons, the radicle, the brown spermoderm and the colorless 
endosperm forming but a small portion of its bulk. The short raphe, 
about half the length of the nut, and the nerves radiating from the chalaza 
are distinctly seen through the spermoderm. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Commercial hazelnuts of any variety may be studied. After noting 
the macroscopic characters, particularly the bloom on the outer sur- 
face, the brown fibro-vascular bundles of the pericarp and the spermo- 
derm with its raphe and nerves, transverse sections 
and surface mounts should be prepared. 

Pericarp, i. The Epicarp is best obtained by 
boiling the shell in dilute alkali and scraping with 
a scalpel. Fragments from the upper part of the 
shell consist of thin-walled, isodiametric, polygonal 
cells interspersed with numerous hairs. In cross 
section (Fig. 249) it may be seen that the hairs 
are deeply planted between the thin-walled cells. 
Characteristic of these hairs are their thick walls, 
the lumen being scarcely evident except in the 
basal portion, and the bright yellow color produced 
by alkali. On the lower half of the shell the 
layer consists of isodiametric, somewhat elongated 
cells and hair scars, the hairs themselves usually 
being lacking. 

2. Outer Stone Cells (Fig. 249). The hard 
portion of the shell is in three layers, each of 
colorless stone cells distinctly different from those 
in the others. The stone cells in the outer layer 
Fig. 249. Hazelnut {Cory- are characterized by their rounded isodiametric 
im sp.) Epicarp with ^ distinct oudine, and especially, as noted by 

hairs, and stone cells in ' 

(Mal- Malfatti, by their loose arrangement. They gradu- 
ally increase in size from 15 « in the outer layers 
to 50 a in the inner. Being in loose contact, they separate readily on 
grinding. Through this layer pass the large bundles, often 500 ,« in 
diameter, which in the ripe nut are usually disorganized. 

3. Middle Stone Cells. In this layer the stone cells arc radially 
elongated and closely arranged. 




cross section. 

FATTI.) 



HAZELNUT. 311 

4. The Inner Stone Cells are larger than those in the two outer 
layers and have thicker walls and broader cavities. They are either 
isodiametric or tangentially elongated and have brown contents. Ha- 
nausek has rightly observed that their contour is ill-defined on direct 
examination, but becornes more distinct on addition of alkali. This 
latter reagent imparts to the walls of the stone cells in all three layers 
a bright yellow color. 

5. Brown Parenchyma, at maturity more or less disorganized, forms 
the inner layers. 

Spermoderm. i. The Outer Epidermis of polygonal cells with dis- 
tinct outline and colorless contents is clearly seen in surface mounts or 
cross section. 

2. Hypoderm. Two or three cell layers similar to the epidermis 
form the next coat. 

3. Brown Cells make up the compressed inner tissues. 
Endosperm. Qne to three layers of typical aleurone cells are 

closely united with the embryo. 

Embryo. Hanausek first observed that the cells of the embryo 
contain spherical aleurone grains 16-30 n in diameter, with rounded glo- 
boids embedded in a yellowish granular ground substance. 

These are clearly seen on mounting in alcohol sections previously 
extracted with ether. In water the ground substance gradually dis- 
integrates, liberating the globoids. Hanausek states that minute granules 
of starch are also liberated, but these are not commonly evident. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Hazelnut Meal prepared from the kernel without removal of the 
fat has been used in conjunction with wheat and rye flour for bread- 
making.^ This product consists chiefly of embryo tissues with the char- 
acteristic yellow, globular aleurone grains from which the rounded 
globoids gradually separate on the addition of water. Fragments of the 
spermoderm are also present. 

Hazelnut Cake. Meager details are available as to this product, 
although considerable quantities must be obtained in the manufacture 
of hazelnut oil. -Its microscopic characters are the same as of the unex- 
tracted kernel. 

Ground Hazelnut Shells have been detected by Malfatti, Micko, T. F. 

' Plagge and Lebbin: Veroffentlichungen auf dem Gebiete des Militar-Sanitatswesens 
1S97, 12, 193. 



3i2 NUTS. 

Hanausek, Mansfeld, and others as an adulterant of cinnamon. The 
elements (Fig. 249) are the epicarp cells interspersed with hairs or hair 
scars, the colorless stone cells of the woody portion of the pericarp, 
and the brown obhterated tissues of the inner pericarp. The hairs are 
characterized by their thick walls, narrow lumen and the yellow color 
produced on addition of alkali. Among the stone cells are isodiametric 
forms of various sizes from the outer layers, readily separating from one 
another on grinding, elongated forms from the middle layers, and large 
cells with thick walls and broad lumen from the inner layers. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hanausek, T. F. (16); Villiers et Collin 
(42); Vogl (45). 
Hanausek, T. F.: Ueber den hystologischen Bau der Haselnusschalen. Ztschr. allg. 

osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1892, 30, 61. 
Hanausek, T. F.: Ueber einige, gegenwartig im Wiener Handel vorkommende 

Gewurzfalschungen. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1894, 8, 95. 
Malfatti: Fine neue Verfalschung des Zimmtpulvers. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 

1891, o, 133. 
MiCKO: Haselnusschalen als Verfalschungsmittel der Gewiirze. Ztschr. allg. osterr. 

Apoth.-Ver. 1892, 30, 42. 



MISCELLANEOUS NUTS. 
BRAZIL=NUT. 

The Brazil-nut, also known as the Para-nut from the port of ship- 
ment, and incorrectly as the castanea-nut, is the seed of a large tree 
{Bertholletia excelsa Humb. et Bpl. order MyrtacecB) growing in for- 
ests on the banks of the Amazon and Rio Negro Rivers. Another species, 
B. nohilis Miers., also yields a similar nut. 

The fruit is spherical, about the size of a cocoanut, which it further 
resembles in having a hard endocarp. The ovary is four-celled, each 
containing numerous ovules borne on a central placenta in two rows; 
but on ripening the partitions disappear. At maturity the seeds are 
usually three-sided, resembhng the segments of a small orange. On 
the surface they are transversely roughened and of a dark gray color. 
The hard shell-hke spermoderm, as seen in section, has an outer coat 
I mm. or less thick of a light color, and an inner coat, of softer dark-brown 
tissue with a glossy inner surface. Running through the inner coat in 



BRAZIL-NUT. 313 

the angles is a hard tissue, triangular in cross section, with broad bands 
of vascular elements on the inner side through which the tissues readily- 
separate. On carefully cutting away the inner tissues, it may be seen 
that the vascular elements forming the band in the straight edge belong 
to the raphe, the delicate lateral ramifications being directed upward 
or transversely, while those in the two curved edges proceed from the 
chalaza with lateral ramifications directed downward. The homoge- 
neous flesh of the nut consists entirely of radicle. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Spermoderm. Transverse sections should be cut through the shell 
at the angles and through the tissues half way between the angles. Radial 
longitudinal sections at the angles and tangential sections through the 
epidermis and the band-like tissues of the raphe and its branches are 
also instructive. 

1. Palisade Cells. The epidermis consists of greatly elongated, 
sclerenchyma cells arranged perpendicularly to the surface, forming a 
palisade layer 0.5-1 mm. thick. These remarkable cells have narrow 
branching cavities and thick colorless walls, except at the extreme outer 
end, where the cavity is broad. In tangential section they are poly- 
gonal, varying up to 50 // in diameter. 

2. Outer Brown Tissue. This is a spongy parenchyma with small 
cells containing a deep brown substance responding to the tests for tan- 
nin. On the sides of the seeds it passes directly into the inner brown 
tissue. 

3. Stone Cells. At the angles these cells form a hard tissue, broadly 
triangular in cross section, extending the entire length of the seed. The 
cells are for the most part isodiametric, reaching a maximum diameter 
of 100 /i. The transition to brown tissue in the outer layers is gradual, 
the intermediate tissues being composed of stone cells interspersed with 
parenchyma elements. The stone cells have colorless walls of medium 
thickness and brown contents, and are conspicuous both in sections and 
in the powdered shells. In the inner layers the cells are longitudinally 
elongated. 

4. Fihro -vascular Bundles. The thin broad bands on the inner 
surface of the stone-cell tissue forming in the straight edge the raphe, and 
in the curved edges the branches of the raphe, contain numerous small 
spiral vessels. As the inner spermoderm separates from the outer 
through this tissue, tangential sections are easily prepared. 



314 NUTS. 

5. Inner Brown Tissue. The cells in the inner layers are larger than 
those of the outer layers and form a closer tissue. 

Endosperm. After removing the shell, the meat of the nut, con- 
sisting entirely of radicle, is in perfect condition for sectioning either 
with a razor or a microtome. In cross sections we note that the cells 
in the first two or three layers are sharply differentiated from those 
further inward, suggesting that they may not belong to the embryo at 
all, but are endosperm or less probably perisperm. 

Embryo. Next follow 8-15 layers of thin-walled, circular cells 
30-60 fi in diameter in loose contact. A layer of narrow longitudinally- 
elongated cells forms a distinct ring separating the outer from the inner 
layers. A uniform tissue of round cells varying up to 100 /i in diameter 
makes up the inner portion of the meat. All the cells of the embryo 
contain aleurone grains, of which the solitary grains, often 30 /jl in diam- 
eter, each with a large crystalloid and an irregular globoid mass, are 
especially noticeable. Because of these grains which are among the 
most striking proteid bodies found in the vegetable kingdom, the nut is 
often used in laboratories as a material for study. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The Meat or Embryo is used whole or broken in confectionery. In 
sections mounted in turpentine the large aleurone grains are the notice- 
able elements. Fragments of the brown inner spermoderm are often 
attached to the outer surface. 

The Cake remaining after expressing the oil contains the elements 
already noted. 

Shells of the Brazil-nut have been ground for adulterating spices. 
This material is identified by the following characters: (i) the colorless, 
sclerenchyma palisade cells of the spermoderm which occur in groups of 
more or less rectangular form; (2) the deep-brown parenchyma; (3) 
the isodiametric stone cells with colorless walls and often with deep- 
brown contents. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hanausek, T. F. (16); Tschirch (39). 
Hofmeister: Pflanzenzelle. 1867, 178. 
Millardet: Ann. Sc. nat. iv ser. 34. 



PISTACHIO-NUT. 315 



PISTACHIO=NUT. 

The pistachio tree {Plstacla vera L. order AnacardlacecB) , was culti- 
vated in Asia Minor and Egypt in the days of Joseph, and was introduced 
from these countries into Greece and Rome at an early period. Its 
culture is still limited largely to the Mediterranean region. 

The fruit is a dry drupe with an oily seed, which, freed from the peri- 
carp, is known in commerce as the pistachio-nut or green almond, and 
is extensively used in pastries and confectionery. The seed is elongated, 
10-25 ^"^^"^' ^o^g' ^^^^ ^ pronounced ridge on the dorsal side and a shal- 
low depression on the ventral side near the base. The lower portion is 
flattened from front to back, while the upper portion is flattened in a 
plane at right angles to the last. x\fter soaking or boiling in water, the 
spermoderm and endosperm may be separated as a thin skin from the 
embryo. On the dorsal side, where it is also thickest, the spermoderm 
is dark purple, on the ventral side, green. Closely attached to the 
spermoderm is the colorless, silky-lustrous endosperm. The embryo 
consists of large cotyledons of a green color attached to a radicle sit- 
uated directly beneath the dorsal ridge. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The Spermoderm, together with the endosperm, is sectioned without 
separation from the embryo. 

1. Outer Epidermis. The cells are polygonal, 30-60 /jl in diameter, 
and have faintly beaded walls. 

2. The Middle Spermoderm consists of thin-walled ceUs and fibro- vas- 
cular bundles. On the ventral side only a few cell layers are present, 
but on the dorsal side, eight or more layers. The cells on the dorsal 
side, not only of the middle layers but also of the epidermis, contain a 
water-soluble substance of a carmine or brown color which becomes 
green with alkaU, but is not altered by chloral. 

3. The Inner Epidermis on the dorsal side is also of thin-walled, 
inconspicuous elements, but on other parts is an exceedingly character- 
istic tissue of small, distinctly porous cells. As seen in surface view, 
the cells are 7-15 n in diameter, sharply polygonal, with beaded walls. 
Cross sections show that some of the cells are divided by tangential 
partitions. This layer is here tentatively classed with the spermo- 
derm, although further investigation may show it to be perisperm. 



3i6 NUTS. 

Endosperm. The outer endosperm consists of a variable number of 
layers of typical aleurone cells, the inner layers of more or less obliterated 
cells forming a hyaline membrane. 

Embryo. The green color of the tissues is more apparent to the 
naked eye than under the microscope. The thin-walled cells contain 
spherical aleurone grains, most of which are small (3-5 //), some however 
larger (8-14 /x). 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Pistachio-nuts, whether whole or chopped, are recognized (i) by the 
carmine or brown coloring matter in the spermoderm becoming green 
with alkali, and (2) by the exceedingly small but distinctly porous cells 
of the inner epidermis. 

Almonds and other nuts dyed with coal-tar colors are sometimes 
substituted for genuine pistachio-nuts. In a suspected sample, foreign 
tissues should be searched for under the microscope, and tests made 
for foreign dyes. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hanausek, T. F. (16); Planchon et Collin 

(34); Vogl (43). 

PINE-NUT. 

The seed kernels or " nuts " of several species of pine, notably the 
stone pine of Italy (Pinus Pinea L. order Ahietinece), and the Cembra or 
Swiss pine (P. Cembra L.), including the Siberian variety (var. Siberica), 
are highly prized for their delicate resinous flavor. 

As foimd on the market, the kernels, consisting of the endosperm 
and embryo entirely free of spermoderm, are narrow, elongated, 1-1.5 cm. 
long, smooth, and of an ivory-white color. After boiling with water, 
the elongated embryo embedded in the axis of the endosperm, may be 
easily separated. It consists of twelve needle-shaped cotyledons 5-7 mm. 
long and a radicle of about the same length. 

HISTOLOGY. 

In microscopic structure both the endosperm and the embryo en- 
tirely lack characteristic elements. The thin-walled, for the most part 
isodiametric cells contain fat and rounded aleurone grains usually 3-5 /«, 
less often 10-12 /i, in diameter. 



PART VI. 

FRUIT AND FRUIT PRODUCTS. 



FRUIT. 

Fruit, in the common acceptance of the term, includes such succulent 
fruits as are suited for table use. Dry fruits (cereals, buckwheats, 
pepper, anise, cocoanut, etc.), some known as seeds, others as nuts, are 
described elsewhere in this work. 

Only those fruits used for the preparation of preserves, jams, and 
other commercial products are here considered. 

Fruit Products. 

The products of pomes, drupes, berries and other succulent fruits 
include dried and candied fruits, jams, marmalades, preserves, jellies, 
sauces, and catsups. Of these some contain all the histological ele- 
ments of the fruits, including the seed tissues, others only the elements 
of the fruit flesh, and others still no cellular matter whatever, or only 
traces. 

Dried Fruits are prepared from the whole fruit in the case of figs, 
dates, raisins, Xanti currants, prunes, and various berries; from the 
fruits freed from stones in the case of peaches, apricots and cherries; 
and from the pared and cored fruits, in the case of apples and pears. 
Substitution of cheaper fruits is not often practiced, as the macroscopic 
characters and taste of most of the products cannot be successfully imitated. 
The most objectionable practice is the bleaching with sulphur or "sul- 
phuring " of peaches, apples, apricots, pears, and similar fruits that show 
a tendency to turn brown on drying. 

Jams, Marmalades, and Other Preserves, like dried fruits, are pre- 
pared either from the whole fruit or the fruit flesh. After addition of 
sugar the mixture is boiled down to the proper consistency. 

The common adulterants may be clascified as follows: 

I. Foreign Pulp and Gelatinous Material. Under this head may be 
included the pulp of turnips, beets, apples and figs ; the residues or pomace 
obtained in the manufacture of fruit juices and jellies; also starch-paste, 
gelatin, agar- agar, and other vegetable materials used to give " body " 
to fraudulent mixture. 

319 



320 FRUIT. 

It is stated on creditable authority that artificial raspberry jam has 
been made in America in which grass seed took the place of fruit seeds. 
Another fraud, more difficult of detection, consists in mixing the residues 
from the manufacture of fruit juices or jellies with water, gelatinous 
materials, dyes and flavoring substances. 

2. Sweeteners other than cane-sugar include glucose sirup and also 
chemical sweeteners, such as saccharine, dulcin, etc. 

3. Dyes. Cochineal, cudbear, and various vegetable dyes, formerly 
employed in food products, are now largely replaced by dyes of coal- 
tar origin. 

4. Artificial Flavors. These are mixtures of ethers, such as ethyl 
acetate, ethyl butyrate, amyl butyrate, etc., prepared in imitation of the 
real fruit flavors. Banana and pineapple flavors are quite closely imi- 
tated, but the imitations of strawberry and raspberry flavors are sicken- 
ing mixtures, with little resemblance to the genuine. 

5. Vegetable Acids. Citric and tartaric acids are employed to give 
artificial fruit products the requisite acidity, also to bring out the flavor 
of certain mild-flavored fruits. 

6. Chemical Preservatives. Formerly salicylic acid was the common 
preservative of fruit products, but recently, at least in America, sodium 
benzoatc has largely taken its place. Saccharine may also be classed 
under this head, as it is not only a sweetener but also a preservative. 

Fruit Juices and Jellies, being stjained products, are usually quite 
free from seeds, skins and pulp cells, although small fragments of tissues 
may sometimes be found on careful search. 

The adulterants are the same as are used in preserves, excepting the 
pulp of fruits and vegetables. 

Tomato Catsup, a popular sauce in America, consists of tomato pulp 
freed from seeds, mixed with spices and vinegar. It is adulterated with 
foreign pulp, notably that of the pumpkin, coal-tar and other dyes, and 
chemical preservatives. 

Chili Sauce is made from tomatoes, peppers, spices and vinegar. It 
is not usually strained, and therefore contains seeds of both the tomatoes 
and the peppers. The adulterants are the same as of tomato catsup. 

Methods of Examination. 

Preliminary Examination. Seeds, styles, fragments of skin, and 
other tissues are picked out cither from the original material, the residue 
after washing on a sieve, or the deposit that settles after dilution and 



FRUIT PRODUCTS. 



321 



shaking. These may often be identified by the macroscopic characters, 
but in doubtful cases should be examined under the microscope. 

Artificial flavors imitating strawberry, raspberry, and some other 
fruit flavors, are recognized by their characteristic odor and taste, which 
are quite different from those of the real fruits. Apple jelly also has a 
more or less characteristic odor, which is especially marked on heating the 




Fig. 250. ^ Common Diatoms, a Siirirella splendida; b Meridian circulare; c Nitzschia 
linearis; d Nitzschia aciciilaris; e Epithemia Zebra; f Tabellaria fenestrata; g Syiiedra 
Ulna; h Gomphonema acuminatum; i Rhoicosphenia curvata; k Cocconema Cistitla; 
I Naviciila Stauroptera; m Stauroneis Phoenicentron. (Mez.) 



product. Sulphites or glucose containing sulphites, if used in consider- 
able amount, impart a disagreeable sulphurous taste. 

Chemical Examination. Methods for the detection of starch -paste, 
gelatin, glucose, dyes, preservatives, etc., are described in the works on the 
chemical analysis of foods named on page 5. 

Microscopic Examination. Direct examination is made both of the 
original material and of the seeds, styles, skin, fibro-vascular bundles, etc., 
separated by washing on a sieve or by allowing the diluted material to settle. 
Jams and similar saccharine products can be mounted without dilution. 



32 2 FRUIT. 

the gelatinous portion of the material forming a suitable medium in which 
to examine the solid fragments. Owing to the heating with sugar sirup 
in the process of manufacture, as well as to the absence of starch grains, 
fat and similar interfering substances, the tissues are beautifully distinct 
and treatment with clearing rea-gents is usually quite unnecessary. Seeds 
may be broken up on the slide, or may be held in a hand-vice or between 
pieces of soft wood and sectioned with a razor. 

Agar-agar. Marpmann boils the jelly with 5 per cent sulphuric acid, 
adds a few crystals of potassium permanganate and allows to settle. If 
microscopic examination of the sediment discloses diatoms, agar-agar is 
probably present. 

Schimper heats the jelly on a piece of platinum foil and examines the 
residue in a drop of dilute hydrochloric acid for diatoms (Fig. 250). If, 
however, only small amounts of agar-agar are present he recommends 
Marpmann's method. 

Lagerheim calls attention to the presence of characteristic fibrous 
bodies, pointed at one end, which are always present in agar-agar and are 
readily identified. 

Lagerheim' s Test for Benzoic Acid. Place a portion of the material 
on a watch-glass and cover with a glass plate ; heat to boiling, allowing the 
steam to condense on the plate. Remove the latter while still hot, allow 
the drops of liquid to evaporate and examine the residue under the micro- 
scope. If benzoic acid is present, branching cr)'stalline deposits, resem- 
bling frost on the window-pane, are evident. As stated by Lagerheim, this 
test is so delicate as to permit the detection of the small amounts of benzoic 
acid naturally present in cranberries. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Lagerheim: Om den mikroskopiska undersokningen af marmelad. Svensk Farm. 

Tidsk. I 901, 5. 
Lagerheim: Kralitativ bestanining af benzoesyra och salicylsyra i narings-och 

njutningsmedel genom direkt sublimering. Svensk Farm. Tidsk. 1903, 7. 
Marpmann: Beitrage zur mikroskopischen Untersuchung der Fruchtmarmeladen. 

Ztschr. angew. Mikros. 1896, 2, 97. 
Menier: Falsification de la gelee de groseille du commerce decouverte par les Diatomees. 

Nantes. 1879. 
Schimper: Anleitung zur mikrosk. Unters. der veg. Nahr.-u. Genussm. Jena, 1900, 

146. 
WnsrxON: Beitrage zur Anatomie des Beerenobsten. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.- u. Genussm. 

1902, 5, 785. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1902, 288. 



APPLE. 323 

ROSACEOUS FRUITS {Rosacea). 

Most of the important tree fruits and several of the bush fruits belong 
to this family. They are grouped under three subfamilies, each with 
quite distinct characters. 

1. Pomes (Apple, Pear, Quince). The five carpels are united into a 
fleshy fruit, bearing the remains of the calyx teeth in a depression at the end. 
The morphology of pomes has long been a subject for dispute, some botan-' 
ists asserting that the outer fruit flesh is calyx tube, others that it is recepta- 
cle. At present the preponderance of evidence favors the latter theory. 

The epicarp of the quince is hairy, and the mesocarp of the pear and 
quince contains groups of stone cells. In all the drupes the cartilaginous 
endocarp of each of the five locules is made up of sclerenchyma cells. The 
seed is quite complicated in structure, consisting of a spermoderm of 5-6 
more or less characteristic layers, a thin perisperm, an endosperm of a 
few layers of aleurone cells, and a bulky embryo. 

2. Drupes (Almond, Peach, Apricot, Plum, Cherry). The most 
striking characteristic is the thick, hard endocarp or stone. Only one of 
the two ovules usually matures. The spermoderm usually consists of 
four layers, of which the epidermis is characterized by groups of thin- 
walled stone cells. The perisperm, endosperm and embryo are similar 
to those of pomes. 

3. Other Rosaceous Fruits. The raspberry and blackberry are mul- 
tiple drupes, the small individual fruits agreeing in general structure with 
the true drupes. The succulent part of the strawberry is a receptacle, on 
which are diminutive achenes. 

APPLE. 

The apple is not only the leading table and culinary fruit of the tem- 
perate zone, but in addition ranks next to the grape for the production 
of fermented liquors. 

It is a native of eastern Europe and southwestern Asia, and has been 
cultivated since prehistoric times in the Old World, and since colonial 
times in America and Australia. The common species (Pyrus Mains 
L.) includes many varieties, differing greatly in size, shape, color of skin 
and flesh, texture, flavor, acidity, and keeping qualities. 

Notwithstanding the variations in shape, all apples have a depression 
at one end, in which are borne the withered calyx teeth, and another 



32 4 FRUIT. 

more pronounced at the other end, in which is inserted the woody stem. 
The skin is tough and closely adherent to the fruit flesh. In the recep- 
tacle or outer fruit flesh are embedded the five wedge-shaped carpels, 
which are also fleshy, except for the cartilaginous endocarp lining the 
cavities. At full maturity an axial cavity appears in the fruit and the 
endocarps split on their inner edges, thus opening communication between 
the cell cavities and the axial cavity. Each cell contains two brown, 
flattened obovoid seeds. 

The crab- apple (P. haccata L.) is the only other species cultivated to 
any considerable extent for fruit. In this species the fruit is small, seldom 
exceeding 40 mm. in diameter, and is useful only for cooking. The 
calyx teeth drop before the fruit reaches maturity. 

HISTOLOGY.' 

Fresh ripe apples, either hardened in alcohol or without special treat- 
ment, supply material for preparing sections of both the fruit itself and 
the seeds. 

Receptacle and Pericarp, i. Epidermis. The cells of the epidermis 
have a cuticle 12-15 !"■ thick. In surface view, the thick-walled mother 
cells, divided by much thinner walls into 2-5 more or less quadrilateral 
daughter cells, remind us of windows, hence the name "window cells." 
The daughter cells range from 15 — 50 jx in diameter, being about twice 
as large as in the pear. In the calyx and stem depression, the walls 
throughout are of more uniform thickness. Here also, particularly in 
the calyx depression, are found long, thin-walled, strap-shaped, pointed 
hairs. The contents of the cells are brown granular masses, occasional 
chlorophyl grains and, in the case of colored apples, reddish or violet 
coloring matter in solution, which becomes greenish with iron salts, and 
blue-green with alkalies changing back to its original color with acids. 

2. Hypoderm. Two to three layers of rather small, more or less 
porous cells underlie the epidermis. As appears in cross section, they 
are tangentially elongated, and the walls are collenchymatously thickened. 
Starch grains 5-14 fi long and 4-10 n broad, the larger grains with elon- 
gated hilum, the smafler often in twins, triplets, or larger aggregates, are 
sometimes found in the larger cefls. In highly colored apples, the cells 
contain coloring material in solution. 

3. Fruit Flesh. A loose parenchyma of large, thin-walled cells with 
indistinct contents makes up the bulk of the fruit flesh. When the fruit 

' Based on the investigations of Malfatti, supplemented by observations of the writer. 



APPLE. 



325 



is fully ripe these cells are easily separated from one another by pressing 
with a cover-glass, appearing lilce rounded, somewhat elongated, col- 
lapsed sacs. 

On cutting an apple transversely into halves, we note an indistinct 
line of demarcation between the fruit flesh of the receptacle and that of 
the five united carpels. The structure of the fruit flesh is much the 
same in both receptacle and mesocarp. In the two or three layers 
adjoining the endocarp, the cells are small, elongated in various tan- 
gential directions, and contain occasional oxalate crystals. 

4. Endocarp. The parchment-like endocarp consists of 3-4 layers of 
thick-walled, sclerenchyma fibers, and elongated cells, extended in vari- 
ous directions parallel to the inner surface, forming a tissue similar 
to that found in the endocarp of coffee. Rows of thin-walled crystal- 
cells are distributed among the fibres. Pores are distinct in the outer 
layers, indistinct in the inner. In the cleft formed by the splitting of 
the ripe carpels at the sutures, parenchyma cells, and curious, jointed, 
branching warty hairs (Fig. 251) often make their appearance. Some 




Fig. 251. Apple {Pyrus Mains). Hairs from suture of endocarp. (Malfatti.) 



of the individual cells of the hairs, particularly the terminal ones, are 
sclerenchymatized, thus furnishing a distinction from the similar hairs of 
the pear. These outgrowths are highly characteristic, but, unfortunately, 
are not always present. 

Spermoderm. Sections should be examined directly in glycerine, and 
in water, also, for the study of the inner spermoderm, after treatment 
with Javelle water and staining. Surface preparations mounted in chlor- 
zinc iodine are instructive. 

I. The Outer Epidermis is first studied in cross sections mounted in 
glycerine. The radial and especially the outer walls are greatly thickened 



32 6 FRUIT. 

and show a laminated structure. What appear like minute warts on the 
inner surface of the outer walls are but the sections of the ribs forming the 
reticulations seen in surface view. The inner lamellag are mucilaginous 
and swell greatly on addition of water. Surface sections show that the 
cells are thick- walled, longitudinally elongated, and conspicuously marked 
by coarse spiral reticulations. 

2. Hypodermal Fibers longitudinally arranged, with greatly thickened 
brown walls, form 6-10 layers, or about half the thickness of the spermo- 
derm. In the debris obtained by scraping, they are distinguished by 
their slender, tapering form and thick, brown walls. 

3. Tube Cells. Adjoining the last is a loose tissue of 2-3 layers of 
longitudinally elongated, rather thin-walled, blunt cells in interrupted 
contact, resembling the tube-cells of cereals. The cells are further dis- 
tinguished from the hypodermal fibers by their greater breadth. Diagonal 
markings are evident after bleaching and staining. In parts the tissue is 
a typical spongy parenchyma. A brown substance with the reactions 
of tannin impregnates the walls and partially fills the cells. 

4. Cross Cells. The next layer resembles the preceding, but the 
transversely elongated elements are narrower, and in closer contact. 

5. Starch Cells. A single cell layer of colorless, exceedingly thin- 
walled cross cells contains minute starch grains. Were it not for these 
grains the layer would hardly be noticeable. 

6. Inner Epidermis. These cells are also transversely elongated, but 
only moderately so, and are further distinguished from those of the pre- 
ceding layers by their polygonal form and the absence of intercellular 
spaces. They are impregnated with a brown substance. 

Perisperm. On cutting open a seed, a colorless skin may be found 
between the thick brown spermoderm and the embryo. This consists of 
perisperm and endosperm. 

A hyaline membrane, in section 3-6 n thick, apparently structureless, 
separates the spermoderm from the endosperm. It is stained a deep 
yellow with chlorzinc iodine, whereas the adjoining tissues are stained 
blue. After this treatment a delicate, cellular network is distinguishable 
in surface view. The remainder of the perisperm is a colorless, obliterated 
tissue, with only slight indications of cellular structure. 

Endosperm, i, ^/^;/rowe Cf//^ form the outer layers. These are color- 
less, rather thick-walled, in surface view polygonal, and contain aleurone- 
grains and fat. 

2. Obliterated Cells complete the endosperm. 



APPLE. 327 

The Embryo consists of two oval cotyledons and a relatively small 
radicle. The cells are thin-walled; the contents consist of aleurone 
grains and fat. 

Stem. Cork cells in 4-6 cell layers form the outer zone, then 4-5 
layers of small-celled collenchyma, passing by degrees into the middle 
bark. The bundles of very delicate cells are partly inclosed on the outer 
sides by the bast-fiber bundles. On the inner side they adjoin a zone 
of stone cells, interrupted only by the medullary rays. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Preserves. Various products of the apple, such as preserves, jams, 
jellies, and sauces are articles of commerce. Apple jelly and apple pre- 
serves also serve as adulterants of more expensive fruits, the deception 
being completed by the addition of dyes, artificial fruit ethers, and even 
grass seed. Apples also enter into the composition of " mince-meat," 
which in America is sold both moist and desiccated for making pies. 

These products either contain only the fruit flesh of the apple, the 
tissues of which lack distinctive character, with traces of the character- 
istic elements of the epidermis, the endocarp and the seed, or else, in 
the case of jellies, no cellular structure whatever. While this lack of 
characteristic elements renders the microscopic identification of the 
material as an apple product usually impossible, it facilitates the detec- 
tion of materials with distinctive characters. 

Apple Pomace, the residue from the cider-press, is used for feeding 
cattle and for other purposes. It contains all the histological elements 
of the fruit. 

The tissues of chief use in diagnosis are the epidermis, the " window " 
cells of which are larger than those of the pear ; the endocarp with thicker- 
walled fibers than in other pomes; the branching, multicellular, warty 
hairs from the suture, which, except for the sclerenchyma elements, are 
much the same as the corresponding hairs of the pear; the longitudinally 
elongated, reticulated, thick-walled epidermal cells of the spermoderm, 
which differ markedly from the isodiametric cells of the pear and quince; 
and finally the tissues of the stem. Products of the ripe apple contain 
only faint traces of starch 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hassall(ig). 
BoRDziLOWSKi : Ueber die Entwicklung der beerenartigen und fleischigen Friichte. 
Arb. Kiewer Naturf. Gas. 1888, 9, 65. 



328 FRUIT. 

Howard: Microscopical Examinations of Fruits and Fruit Products, U. S Dept. Agr. 

Bur. Chem. Bull. 66, 103. 
Malfatti: Beitrage zur Anatomie der Birn- und Apfelfrucht. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. 

Hyg. 1896, 10, 265. 
Strasburger: Das botanische Practicum. 
Strasburger: Das kleine botanische Practicum. 



PEAR. 

Most of the varieties of pear, including all those cultivated in Europe 
and America before the early part of the nineteenth century, are forms 
of Pyrus communis L., a native of Europe and western Asia, although 
a number of the varieties now cultivated in America, including the Le Conte 
and the Kieffer, are hybrids with the oriental pear, P. Sinensis Lindl. 

The pear differs from the apple in form, having a more or less tapering 
stem-end without a depression, also in the texture and flavor of the fruit 
flesh; but in general morphological details the fruits are identical. 

HISTOLOGY.' 

Receptacle and Pericarp, i. The Epidermis (Fig. 252) consists of 

" window cells " like those of the apple, but only half as large (10-25 A*)- 

,, // . They are covered with a thick cuticle, 

(L- ]f\\(^Z~^^/\y? which however is ruptured in places, par- 

^C^^^^^^fy^^XiV ticularly about the stomata, with the for- 

JfjUl^^vl'r^ilC '1 //>^ mation of cork cells beneath. In varieties 

^M^y^^n^^'^ with a rough skin, the epidermal cells 

^/''^ "^^^^/)/~- " proper give place almost entirely to cork 

^^ tissues. In the calyx depression are thick- 

FiG. 252. Pear {Pyrus communis), walled, pointed hairs 200-250 /zlong. 

fESER")'"'^'''" ^'^^' ^'^°' 2. A Hypoderm of 3-4 layers consists 

of small tabular cells with moderately 
thickened walls. 

3. The Fruit Flesh (Fig. 253), while consisting for the most part of 
thin-walled, elongated or isodiametric cells with occasional starch grains 
(4-5 fi), is characterized by numerous clusters of strongly thickened 
stone cells, about which as a center radiate elongated parenchyma cells. 
The groups of stone cells are largest (often over i mm.) and occur in the 
greatest number in the inner layers. The individuals are isodiametric, 
seldom over 25 ;< in diameter, or slightly elongated, and have colorless 

' Based on the investigations of Malfatti supplemented by observations of the writer. 



PEAR. 



329 



walls with distinctly branching pores. Alkali colors them yellow, saf- 
ranin, red, thus making them evident in the mass of parenchymatous 
ground tissue. Similar stone cells occur in the quince, but are entirely 
lacking in the apple. 

The inner layers of the fruit flesh belong properly to the pericas-p. 
The transition to endocarp is more gradual than in the apple. 

4. Endocarp. Fibers with walls thicker than the breadth of the 
lumen, such as form the dense endocarp of the apple, are here replaced 
by elongated cells with broader cavities and less strongly thickened walls. 




Fig. 253. Pear, sc group of stone cells, with radiating parenchyma, from the fruit flesh; 
e epicarp. (Villiers and Collin.) 

We note in surface view the transition from large, isodiametric paren- 
chyma cells of the fruit flesh to elongated, but broad, thick-walled, porous 
sclerenchyma cells, from these to narrower and thinner-walled, but dis- 
tinctly porous fibrous cells, and finally to the non-porous cells of the 
inner layer. The parenchyma which forms in the suture bears multi- 
cellular, branching, warty hairs (Fig. 254) similar to those found in the 
apple, but lacking the thick-walled members. 

Spermoderm. i. Outer Epidermis. Since the cells are isodiametric 
polygonal, as seen in surface view, they may be distinguished at 
a glance from the longitudinally elongated, conspicuously reticulated 
cells of the apple. Viewed in cross section they are prismatic, upward 
of 50 p. high. The secondary membrane is mucilaginous in the outer 
portion of the cell, leaving but a narrow cylindrical cell lumen. In the 
inner portion of the cell this mucilaginous wall is thinner, the cavity 
being here bulb-shaped. The thin innermost, or tertiary membrane of 



33° FRUIT. 

the cell-wall greedily takes up safranin, thus bringing out very clearly 
the cell cavity, which, taken as a whole, is flask-shaped. 

2. Fiber Layer. Eight to fourteen layers of brown-walled, strongly 
thickened fibers with brown contents form the bulk of the spermoderm. 
In cross section they are polygonal. Differentiation in the inner layers 




Fig. 254. Pear. Hairs from suture of endocarp. (Malfatti.) 

into tube cells such as occur in the apple, is not noticeable, the fibers 
passing abruptly into the cross cells of the next layer. 

3. Cross Cells, 4. Starch Cells, and 5. Inner Epidermal Cells, also 
Perisperm, Endosperm, Embryo, and Stem are much the same as in 
the apple. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Pears are preserved and dried in various ways for winter use. On 
the Continent, fruit of inferior grade, as well as the pomace from the 
manufacture of pear cider, is dried and ground for the preparation 
of various coffee substitutes and for adulterating spices and other food 
products. 

The elements of value in distinguishing pears from apples are the 
window cells (Fig. 252) of the epidermis (smaller than in the apple); the 
groups of stone cells (Fig. 253) in the fruit flesh (absent in the apple); 
the endocarp cells with broad lumen (narrow in the apple); and the 
isodiametric mucilaginous epidermal cells of the spermoderm (longitudi- 



PE/IR. QUINCE. 331 

nally elongated and spirally reticulated in. the apple). The warty, multi- 
cellular hairs (Fig. 254) on the sutures of the carpels are similar in both 
species, but those of the pear lack thick-walled members. Other con- 
spicuous elements common to both fruits are the brown fibers and cross 
cells of the spermoderm, and the elements of the stem. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hanausek, T. F. (10); Moeller (29); 
Schimper (37); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (45). 
Baillon: Sur le development des ovules des Pyrus. Bull. mens, de la soc. Linn, de 

Paris. 1S75, 45. 
Gaecin: Recherches sur I'histogenese des pericarpes charnus. Ann. Soc. nat. Bot. 

Ser. VII, 1890,12, 175. 
Howard: ^Microscopical Examinations of Fruits and Fruit Products. U. S. Dept. Agr. 

Bur. Chem. Bull. 66, 103. 
Jumelle: Sur les graines a deux teguments. B. S. B. France, 1888, 35, 302. 
Malfatti: Beitrage zur Anatomie der Birn- und Apfelfrucht. Ztschr. Nahr. -Unters. 

Hyg. 1896 10, 265. 
Nevinny: Die Piment-Matta. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1887, 1, 46. 



QUINCE. 

The quince (Cydonia vulgaris Pers., Pyrus Cydonia L.), although re- 
garded by some authorities as belonging to another genus, is closely 
related to the apple and pear. The tree is a native of central Asia, but 
is cultivated throughout the temperate regions of both continents. 

The fruit of some varieties is apple-shaped, of others pear-shaped. 
Woolly hairs cover the surface of the immature fruit, but are loosely 
attached, and many of them either fall off during ripening or are rubbed 
off by handling. The fruit has five cavities, like the apple and pear, 
but each contains 6-15 seeds arranged mostly in two crowded rows. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Receptacle and Pericarp, i. The Epidermis consists of window 
cells (10-25 1^) 1^^^ those of the pear and also hairs. The latter are 
exceedingly crooked and usually have walls thinner than the lumen. 
They resemble raspberry hairs. 

2. The Hypodermal Cells are of no special interest. 

3. Fruit Flesh. Several authors have cited the mesocarp of the 
quince as one of the most striking examples of stone cells distributed 
through a parenchymatous tissue. The tissue is even more remarkable 



332 FRUIT. 

than that of tne pear, as the groups of stone cells are usually larger, often 
reaching several millimeters in diameter, and the parenchyma cells ra- 
dia,ting from them are usually more elongated. Small starch grains 
are distributed through the parenchyma. 

The inner layer of the fruit flesh is properly mesocarp. 

4. The Endocarp of the quince is similar to that of the pear, except 
that here and there strongly thickened fibers occur in the middle layers. 

Spermoderm. i. Epidermis. The gelatinous substance which sur- 
rounds the moist seeds originates in this layer. Mounted in glycerine 
the cellular structure is indistinct, but on addition of vyatcr the mucilagi- 
nous substance forming the inner or secondary membrane of the walls 
dissolves and the cells assume their normal, sharply prismatic form. The 
cells are often over 100 /z high and have thin colorless primary walls. 
In tangential section they are isodiametric polygonal, but in fragments 
obtained by scraping, owing to their height, they often fall on their sides 
and present the characteristic elongated appearance seen in cross section. 

2. Fiber Layer, 3. Cross Cells, 4. Starch Cells, and 5. Inner Epi- 
dermis, agree closely in structure with the corresponding layers of the 
pear. 

Perisperm. By treating cross sections with Javelle water, the outer 
cells of the compressed tissue forming the perisperm swell to their nor- 
mal shape. The thick cuticle evidently belongs to these cells. 

Endosperm and Embryo present the characters common to the group. 
Tschirch notes that the aleurone grains vary from 5.5-6.5 // and contain 
globoids in considerable numbers. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

As quinces are more expensive than the other pomes, they probably 
never serve as adulterants. The microscopist may, however, be called 
upon to examine quince preserves for foreign pulp, or quince seeds 
(used in medicine because of their mucilaginous properties) for seeds of 
the apple or other foreign seeds. 

The groups of stone cells in the fruit flesh are like those of the pear, 
and are distinguished from other stone cells by the elongated parenchyma 
cells, which, even after cooking, form rosettes about the groups. Mounted 
in water, the thin-walled, prismatic epidermal ceUs of the spermoderm, 
often 100 {1 high, are unlike the epidermal cells found in the apple or 
pear. The crooked hairs of the epicarp resemble those of the raspberry. 



QUINCE. ALMOND 333 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Planchon et Collin (34); 
Tschirch (39). 
BoEDZiLOWSKi: Ueber die Entwicklung der beerenartigen und fleischigen Friichte. Arb. 

Kiewer Naturf. Ges. 1888, 9, 65. 
Garcin: Recherches sur I'histogenese des pericarpes charnus. Ann. Soc. nat. Bot. 

Ser. VII, 1890, 12, 175. 
Godfrin: Etude histologique sur les tegument seminaux des Angiospermes. Soc. 

d. Sci. d. Nancy, 1880, 109. 
Howard: Microscopical Examinations of Fruits and Fruit Products. U. S. Dept. 

Agr. Bur. Chem. Bull. 66, 103. 

ALnOND. 

Although the almond is commonly known as a nut, it is properly a 
drupe with the outer pericarp removed, or in common parlance, a "stone." 
The almond tree (Prunus amygdalus Stokes) is so closely related to the 
peach that some botanists regard it as but a variety of the latter developed 
by cultivation. According to Focke it is a native of Turkestan and middle 
Asia, but it is now cultivated not only in the Orient, but in southern Europe, 
northern Africa and California. 

The cultivated varieties fall into two classes: the sweet almonds (var. 
dulcis) including the hard and the paper-shelled varieties, and the bitter 
almonds (var. amara), the latter containing a glucoside, amygdalin, which 
through the agency of emulsin, another constituent, splits up into dex- 
trose, hydrocyanic acid, and oil of bitter almonds. In all the varieties, 
the outer pericarp at maturity is not fleshy as in the peach, but thin and 
leathery, splitting away from the stone along a longitudinal groove on one 
side of the fruit. The stone or unshelled almond is flattened, pointed at 
one end, of a buff color, and has a dufl surface with numerous shaUow pits. 
The outer part of the endocarp is not so hard as the inner, and is more or 
less separated from the latter by a zone containing the fibro-vascular 
bundles. Paper-shelled almonds, owing to the thin endocarp, are partic- 
ularly suited for table use. 

Although the ovary contains two ovules, only one usually develops 
into a seed (Fig. 255, 1-5). The latter is suspended in the cavity, being 
connected with a large bundle running between the two layers of the 
endocarp. A conspicuous raphe passes from the hilum situated near the 
pointed or upper end of the seed to the chalaza at the lower or broader 
end, there separating into numerous branches. A thin brown spermoderm 



FRUIT. 







Fig, 255. Seeds of Drupes. 1-7. Almond {Prunus amygdalus); 8-13. Peach (P. Persica); 
14-20. Plum (P. domestica); 21-26. Apricot (P. Armeniaca). 

Side views of the seeds (1-4, 8-10, 14-17, 21-231 show variations in form and size, Xi; 
basal views (5, 11, 18, 24) show chalaza and nerves, X2. 

6, 12, 19, and 25. Skin in cross section. Spermoderm- consists of a outer epidermis, 
middle layers with g bundles, and c inner epidermis; d perisperm; endosperm consists of 
e aleurone cells and / obliterated cells. 

7> 13. 20, and 6. Outer epidermis of spermoderm in surface view. (Wittmack and 
Btjchwald.) 



/ILMOND. 335 

and a still thinner, colorless skin made up of perisperm and endosperm 
incloses the embryo, which consists of large cotyledons and a small radicle 
situated at the hilum end. 

The highly esteemed Jordan almonds from Malaga have long, narrow 
kernels, with light buff, smooth spermoderm. Other varieties, including 
Alicanti or Valencia almonds, have broadly ovoid, flattened kernels and 
a rough, dark-brown spermoderm. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Endocarp. In the outer papery layers the ground tissue is made up 
of isodiametric, parenchyma and sclerenchyma cells with thickened walls 
pierced by circular pores. The bundles, which lie in a zone between this 
and the inner endocarp, contain numerous pitted vessels ic»-i5 pt broad 
and, rarely, spiral vessels. 

The inner or hard endocarp is thin, being but 0.5 mm. or less thick in 
paper-shelled varieties. On the inner surface it is smooth but not lus- 
trous. The cells throughout are sclerenchymatized, but vary greatly in size 
and shape as well as in the thickness of the walls. Those in the outer layers 
are large, usually isodiametric, with walls only slightly thickened. Their 
circular or elhptical pores are small but very conspicuous. In the middle 
layers the stone cells are transversely elongated and rather narrow, with 
walls often thicker than the breadth of the lumen. Still narrower (seldom 
over 20 p.), elongated stone cells form the inner layers. They are for the 
most part longitudinally arranged and have walls so strongly thickened 
that the lumen is reduced to a narrow line. All have white or light yellow 
walls and colorless or light brown contents. 

The Spermoderm forms a thin brown skin with a finely granular outer 
surface. Cross sections should be examined directly in water and also 
after treatment with alkali, or, better still, with Javelle water. 

1. Outer Epidermis (Fig. 255, 6, a). Large stone cells with broad lumen 
and rather thin walls distributed in groups among the parenchyma cells 
characterize this layer. They reach a breadth of 100 /i and a height of 
175 //. As seen in cross section they are more or less rectangular. Cir- 
cular pores penetrate the walls of the inner half. 

2. The Hypoderm {h) includes two or three layers of brown polygonal 
cells without intercellular spaces. 

3. The Middle Layers {c) are of spongy parenchyma, through which 
pass the raphe and its branches, consisting of numerous spiral vessels, 
phloem elements, and crystal fibers. 



33^ FRUIT. 

4. Inner Epidermis (c). Although made up of small cells, this layer 
is distinct in cross section because of the brown contents. In surface 
view the cells are polygonal. 

Perisperm (d). From seeds soaked in water the perisperm and endo- 
sperm may be separated as a white inner skin. A hyaline layer of oblit- 
erated cells occurs in this as well as in the other common species of the 
genus. Treatment of sections with Javelle water brings out the outer 
layer of rectangular cells with a cuticularized outer membrane. 

The Endosperm (e) consists of a single layer of aleurone cells with 
rather thick walls, and inner layers of obliterated cells. 

Embryo. The epidermal cells are elongated, the cells of the inner 
layers rounded. The small aleurone grains of the ground tissue are 
3-5 fi, the large solitary grains 10-15 /t in diameter. Some contain 
crystalloids, others globoids, and still others, particularly the large soh- 
tary grains, calcium oxalate rosettes. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Whole Almonds. Seeds or "pits" of the peach, apricot, and plum 
closely resemble shelled almonds, and are common substitutes (Fig. 255). 
Wittmack and Buchwald, who have made comparative studies of the 
four seeds, find that, although the stone cells found in the epidermis of 
the almond and peach are commonly higher than broad, whereas in the 
apricot and plum they are broader than high, this distinction is of little 
service in identification. The characters on which they place chief 
dependence follow : 

1. Almond. Agreeable taste, also strong odor on adding hot water, 
characteristic. Even bitter almonds lack disagreeably bitter taste. Sper- 
moderm firm, leathery, light yellow-brown within. 

2. Peach. Kernels broadly ovoid, flatter than those of almonds, 
smaller than most almonds, sharply angled. Spermoderm very thin, 
brown within. Taste at first somewhat sweet, afterwards bitter. Odor, 
after treatment with hot water, sweet. 

3. Plum. Kernels rather long or broadly ovoid, thick, rounded at 
angles. Spermoderm as in peach. Taste Hke that of peach kernels, 
but bitter after-taste more disagreeable. Odor after scalding sweet, 
suggesting ripe plums. 

4. Apricots. Kernels broadly heart-shaped, flat. Spermoderm firm, 
leathery, within white and shining. Taste same as that of peach and 
plum kernels. Disagreeable, sweet odor on treatment with hot water. 



ALMOND. PEACH. 337 

Almond Paste consists of the ground kernel freed from spermoderm. 
From it are made dietetic preparations for diabetics, also cosmetics, and 
macaroons, a well-known confection. Peach and apricot kernels are 
common adulterants, but cannot, with our present knowledge, be de- 
tected by the microscope. 

Almond Cake, obtained as a by-product in the manufacture of almond 
oil, yields on grinding almond flour, much used as a cosmetic, also in 
Europe as an adulterant of ground spices and other powders. The 
tissues of the spermoderm, particularly the stone cells of the epidermis 
(Fig. 255, 7, a), are of chief importance in diagnosis. 

Almond Shells, like those of other fruit stones, are ground for adulter- 
ating spices. The stone cells and vascular elements are easily found, 
but not so easily distinguished from similar elements of other shells. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Collin et Perrot (9); Hanausek, 
T. F. (10, 16, 48); Meyer, Arthur (27); Moeller (29); Planchon et Collin (34); Vogl 

(45)- 

Collin: Falsification des substances alimentaires par les coques d'amandes pulverisees. 
Journ. pharm. chim., 1905, loi. 

Garcin : Du noyau des drupes. Histologie et histogenese. Ann. d. 1. Soc. Bot. Lyon, 
1890, 17, 27. 

Garcin: Contributions a 1' etude des pericarpes charnus. Du noyau des drupes. His- 
tologie et histologenese. Lyon, 1890. 

Garcin: Recerches sur I'histogenfese des pericarps charnus. Ann. Soc. nat. Bot. Ser. 
VII, 1890, 12, 175. 

Godfrin: Etude histologique sur les tegument seminaux des Angiospermes. Soc. d. 
Sci. d. Nancy, 1880, 109. 

WiTTMACK u. Buchwald: Die Unterscheidung der Mandeln von ahnlichen Samen. 
Ber. deutsch. bot. Ges. 1901, 19, 584. 

PEACH. 

Notwithstanding its specific name (Prunus Persica Sieb. et Zucc), the 
peach is believed to be a native of China. It is a typical drupe, with 
a hairy epicarp, a fleshy mesocarp, and a dense, deeply furrowed stone 
or endocarp. The varieties in cultivation have yellow or white flesh, 
the outer portion, particularly in white peaches, often being suffused 
with red, as are often the fibrous layers adjoining the stone. The 
stone either clings to the flesh or is free. The seed (Fig. 255, 8-11) 
is smaller than the almond and has a thinner spermoderm. It tastes 
at first sweet, afterwards bitter, and has a sweet odor after scalding. 



338 FRUIT. 



HISTOLOGY. 



Fresh or canned whole peaches may be hardened in alcohol for section- 
ing. The epicarp separates readily from the fully ripe fruit, especially 
after scalding. Sections of the stone may be prepared with a strong 
razor, or by grinding on an oil-stone. 

Pericarp, i. The Epicarp elements are polygonal cells, stomata 
and numerous hairs, the latter forming a dense velvety coat. These 
hairs are exceedingly variable in length, many being mere papillae, while 
others exceed i mm. They are straight or shghtly sinuous, 10-25 /i 
broad in the middle, tapering toward both ends, and are either rather 
sharp pointed or, less often, blunt. Even the short forms are strongly 
developed, the thickness of the walls usually exceeding the breadth of 
the lumen. The basal portions between the epidermal cells are exceed- 
ingly narrow (6-10 /i), with scarcely evident lumen. Separated from the 
epicarp, the hairs often appear double pointed. 

2. A Hypoderm of 4-6 layers of tabular, somewhat coUenchymatous 
cells is seen in cross section. 

3. Mesocarp. The cells are for the most part rounded and present 
no characteristic feature. Howard finds that the vessels of the bundles 
are mostly reticulated, spiral vessels being absent. About the bundles 
the pulp cells are elongated. 

4. Endocarp. The hard, deeply furrowed shell of the peach stone 
is 3-8 mm. thick, of a light brown color. Although exceedingly hard 
throughout, it is easily split into halves by inserting a knife-blade through 
the suture, thus disclosing a prominent bundle entering the cavity near 
its upper end. A continuation of this bundle is the funiculus. There is 
no separation of the endocarp by a bundle zone into an outer and inner 
portion as in the case of the almond, the tissues being hard and, to the 
naked eye, nearly uniform throughout. 

The bulk of the stone is a dense aggregate of nearly isodiametric 
stone cells often 50-75 jx broad, with colorless, porous walls equalling 
or exceeding in thickness the breadth of the lumen. Within 0.5 mm. or 
less of the inner surface there is a layer 200-300 /z thick of narrow 
transversely elongated stone cells, passing abruptly into an inner layer 
of still narrower forms longitudinally arranged. 

The Spennoderm, Perisperm, Endosperm, and Embryo conform 
closely in structure to the almond. Wittmack and Buchwald note that 
the epidermal stone cells of the peach spermoderm taper toward the 



PEACH. APRICOT. 339 

« 
free end, two neighboring cells being in contact only at the basal end 
(Fig. 255, ij, a). In surface view this character is not evident. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The Pulp or flesh is not only eaten raw, but is dried and preserved 
whole, and is made into preserves. 

It consists of thin walled elements and bundles. The absence of 
spiral vessels in the bundles facilitates the detection of apple pulp, one 
of the commonest adulterants of fruit products. In preserves, even 
when made from the pared fruit, as is almost always the case, fragments 
of the epicarp, or more commonly the detached hairs from this coat, are 
present in greater or less abundance. The hairs are characterized by 
their variable length, thick walls, and narrow base. Detached from 
the epicarp they appear to be double-pointed. 

The Endocarp in powder form lacks characteristic features, the color- 
less stone cells of other drupes and of other vegetable products having 
practically the same appearance. 

The Seed (Fig 255) agrees so closely in structure with the almond 
that distinction must be based largely on physical tests (p. 336). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See Bibliography of Almond, p. 337: Garcin; Godfrin; Wittmack u. Buchwald. 
Howard: Microscopical Examinations of Fruits and Fruit Products. U. S. Dept. 

Agr. Bur. Chem. Bull. G6, 103. 
Lampe: Zur Kenntniss des Baues und der Entwickelung saftiger Friichte. Ztsclor. 

Naturw. 1886, 59, 295. 
MiCKO: Ueber den microskopischen Bau der Steinkerne von Amygdaliis persica, Primus 

armeniaca, domestica et avium, sowie deren Vorkommen in Genussmitteln. 

Ztschr. osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1893, 31, 2, 21. 

APRICOT. 

The apricot tree (Prunus Armeniaca L.), a native of central Asia, 
is cultivated in various parts of Europe, also extensively in California. 
The fruit is a drupe, very much like the peach in macroscopic structure, 
the chief difference being that the stone is nearly lenticular, about 20 cm. 
broad, and is merely roughened on the surface by shallow pits, whereas 
the peach stone is deeply furrowed. On the ventral suture is a promi- 
nent keel with a sharp edge, and either side of this keel a pronounced 
rib. Through the stone, beneath the suture, passes the bundle which 
enters the locule near the apex and passes into the funiculus. 



340 FRUIT. 

The more or less heart-shaped, flattened seed (Fig. 255, 14-18) is but 
little elongated, the breadth often equaling or exceeding the length. It 
has a bitter after-taste, and on scalding with water a disagreeable, sweet 
smell. 

HISTOLOGY. 

In histological structure the distinctions from the peach are few and 
not well marked. 

Pericarp. TJie Epicarp, Mesocarp, and Endocarp agree closely with 
the corresponding parts of the peach. Howard notes that the meso- 
carp bundles contain many greatly elongated, reticulated vessels, but 
only rarely spiral forms. 

Spermoderm (Fig. 255, 25, 26). Wittmack and Buchwald find that 
the epidermal stone cells of the apricot and plum are smaller than in the 
almond and peach, and their height (48-60 n) is often considerably less 
than their breadth (66-102 ;(). As these distinctions are not always 
well marked and are not evident in surface view, they are regarded by 
these authors as of little value in distinguishing the seeds. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Apricots preserved without removal of the skins and stones are iden- 
tified by the hairs of the former and the shape, size and shallow-pitted 
surface of the latter. The epidermal stone cells of the spermoderm 
are smaller than in the almond and peach. Further distinctions are 
described under Almond. 

Preserved apricots, containing neitlier skin nor stones, lack distinctive 
characters. 

BIBLrOGRArHY. 
See Bibliography of Almond, p. 337, and Peach, p. 339: Howard; Micko; Witt- 
mack u. Buchwald. 

PLun. 

Numerous varieties of both the European plum {Primus domestica L.) 
and the Japanese species {P. triflora Rxb.) are cultivated throughout the 
temperate zone. The European species includes red, blue, and white 
varieties, differing greatly in size and excellence. None of the Japanese 
varieties is blue or purple. 

Plums never have a hairy epicarp, but in other respects are not 
strikingly different from apricots. The stone is smaller than that of the 
apricot and somewhat more elongated, but otherwise is very similar both 
in gross and minute structure (Fig. 255, 14-18). 



PLUM. CHERRY. 341 

HISTOLOGY. 

Pericarp, i. Epicarp. The division of the mother cells into daughter 
cells is clearly evident in surface preparations. The walls are more or 
less distinctly beaded. In the European plum the cells are seldom over 
60 /<, in the Japanese varieties still smaller, rarely exceeding 35 fj.. The 
coloring matter of blue, red, and other colored varieties is confined entirely 
.to the epicarp. 

2. Mesocarp. The ground tissue is not characteristic. According to 
Howard, both spiral and reticulated vessels are found in the bundles. 

Spermoderm (Fig. 255, ig, 20), The stone cells are seldom higher 
than broad and resemble closely those of the apricot. 

Endosperm. On the broad sides of the seeds there are 15-25 layers 
of well-formed aleurone cells, but on the narrow sides there is but one 
layer. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Plums are commonly dried, or preserved in a wet way, with skins and 
stones, thus facihtating their identification. Prunes (dried plums), arc 
sometimes used in coffee substitutes. The stone is smaller than that of 
the apricot but similar in shape, external appearance, and anatomical 
structure. The absence of hairs on the epicarp furnishes a ready means 
of distinction from both the peach and the apricot. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bljth (5); also see Bibliography of 
Almond, p. 337, and Peach, p. 339: Howard; Micko; Wittmack u. Buchwald. 
BORDZILOWSKI : Ueber die Entwickelung der beerenartigen und fleischigen Friichte. 
Arb. Kiewer Naturf. Ges. 1888, 9, 65. 

CHERRY. 

The sweet or Mazzard cherry {Primus avium L.), a native of Europe 
and western Asia, also the sour or Morello cherry {Primus cerasus L.), 
are both cultivated in numerous varieties, which are black, white, or red 
according to the nature of the coloring matter in the epicarp. 

Like the plum, the epicarp is smooth, but the cells are noticeably 
larger, seldom less than 35 n, often 100 // in diameter; furthermore, the 
division of mother cells into daughter cells is not usually evident. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Lampe: Zur Kenntniss des Baues und der Entwickelung saftiger Friichte. Ztschr. 
Naturw. 1886, 59, 295. 



342 FRUIT. 



ROSE FRUIT. 

The "seeds," or more correctly speaking the fruits, of the dog rose 
(Rosa canina L.) and of other species of the same genus are of some im- 
portance in Europe as a drug and as a coffee substitute. 

The ovoid, lustrous, red, compound fruit, the size of a small grape, 
consists of a closed receptacle bearing on the inner hairy surface several 
true fruits about as large as grape seeds. Each fruit is a dry drupe vi^ith 
hard pericarp hairy at the base, thin spermoderm, inconspicuous endo- 
sperm, and relatively large embryo, the structure throughout being quite 
similar to that of the strawberry nutlet. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Lacking the fruits of Rosa canina, the fruits of any rose may be- 
examincd, as they all agree closely in structure. 

Receptacle. The polygonal outer epidermal cells with red contents, 
and the hairs of the inner epidermis are the important tissues. The 
latter often reach the length of several millimeters, have thick walls and 
narrow lumen, and gradually taper toward the base so that when 
detached they are pointed at both ends. 

Pericarp. Transverse, longitudinal, and tangential sections are cut 
with a strong razor. 

1. The Epicarp Cells are longitudinally elongated, and are the only 
cells of the pericarp that are not sclerenchymatized. 

2. Hypoderm. One or more layers of longitudinally elongated (in 
cross section isodiametric), rather thin-walled cells form the hypodermal 
layer. 

3. Large radially elongated Stone Cells constitute the middle layers. 

4. Longitudinal Fibers. These fibers are distinguished in cross sec- 
tion from the stone cells of the preceding layer by their small diameter 
and isodiametric form. 

5. Transverse Fibers in several layers are seen to advantage in cross 
section. Like the crossing fibers of the fourth layer they are exceedingly 
narrow. 

Spermoderm. Cross sections cut with the pericarp should be soaked 
for a time in Javelle water to expand and clear the tissues. The spermo- 
derm should also be studied in surface preparations obtained by soaking 
the seeds in Javelle water and scraping. 



ROSE FRUIT. ST RAPy BERRY. 343 

The Outer Epidermis is of polygonal cells (30-75 !j) in diameter, and 
the Inner Epidermis, of narrow (8-15 //), transversely elongated cells of a 
brown color. The rniddle layers are either absent or obliterated. 

Perisperm. This is an obliterated tissue forming a hyaline mem- 
brane on the outer cells of the endosperm. 

Endosperm. One to several layers of cells containing aleurone 
grains, with often obliterated inner layers, constitute the thin endosperm. 

The Embryo tissues are like those of the strawberry (p, 347). 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The epidermal cells of the receptacle with red contents, the hairs 
pointed at both ends, the stone cells of the pericarp, and the thin- walled 
cells of the spermoderm are the chief diagnostic elements. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hanausek, T. F. (10); Villiers et Collin 
(42). 

STRAWBERRY. 

The varieties of strawberry cultivated in Europe are chiefly improved 
forms of Fragaria Chiloensis Ehrh., but some are said to be hybrids 
of this species with F. vesca L., or F. Virginiana Duchesne. In many 
parts of Europe, however, the small but delicious wood strawberry 
{F. vesca L.) is consumed in larger quantities, both fresh and preserved, 
than the cultivated sorts. 

In colonial times the wild strawberry {F. Virginiana), with its several 
varieties, was cultivated in American gardens, but of late years has been 
supplanted almost entirely by the numerous derivatives of the Chilian 
species, although wild strawberries are still gathered in considerable 
quantities in the meadows. F. vesca grows in the northern part of the 
United States, but it is not so common as the Virginian species. 

The cultivated strawberries {F. Chiloensis) are usually of large size 
(often 3-5 cm. in diameter), and bear the achenes in deep depressions. 

Berries of the wood species {F. vesca) are of small size (seldom over 
I cm. in diameter) and bear the achenes in shallow depressions. 

Berries of the Virginian species are of about the same size as the 
wood strawberries, but like the cultivated berries, the achenes are deeply 
sunken in the receptacle. 

The receptacle, the edible part of the strawberry, consists of a some- 



344 



FRUIT. 



what fleshy pith, a still more fleshy cortex, and between the two a narrow 
zone of fibro-vascular bundles, from which branches shoot off through 
the cortex to tHe achenes (Fig. 256, /). 

On the surface, the receptacle has a tufted appearance, due to the 




Fig. 256. Strawberry (Fragaria Chiloensis). I aggregate fruit, X2. II achene, Xi. 
/// achene, X8: Siy style; Sii stigma; B connecting bundle. IV achene in trans- 
verse section, X32: .F pericarp; 5' spermoderm; R raphe; £ endosperm; £mj embryo. 

(WiNTON.) 

somewhat regularly arranged depressions occupied by the achenes. The 
epidermis is sparingly pubescent. 

The achenes are ovate, pointed, about i mm. long (Fig. 256, // and ///). 
Each is attached to the receptacle a little above its base, and contains 
a single anatropous seed, which is described as " exalbuminous," since 
the endosperm is not evident under the simple lens. The style (about 
2 mm. long) arises from the ventral side a little above the point of attach- 
ment. . 

The pericarp is hard and comparatively thick; the spermoderm soft 
and thin; the embryo minute (Fig. 256, IV). When the fruit reaches 
maturity the calyx is still green and leaf-like, and the stamens are also 
well preserved. The calyx, the stamens, and a portion of the pith are 
removed in preparing the fruit for the table. 



HISTOLOGY. 

In microscopic structure the cultivated, the wood, and the Virginian 
strawberries are identical. 

Receptacle (Fig. 257). i. The Epidermal Cells (ep) for the most 
part are polygonal and isodiametric, but those radiating from the base 
of each hair are usually irregularly diamond-shape, and often strongly 
elongated. The hairs are not numerous, but are often over a milli- 
meter long, tapering gradually from the widest part near the base to 



STR/IIVBERRY. 



345 



the point {h). In the basal portion the lumen is several times the thick- 
ness of the walls, but narrows somewhat abruptly further on, and for 
fully three-fourths of the total length of the hair is but a narrow channel 




Fig. 257. Strawberry. Receptacle in surface view, ep epidermis with h hair and sto 
stoma; Ay hypoderm.; ^ glycoside (?) crystals. X160. (Winton.) 

hardly one-quarter as wide as the walls. The walls, on the other hand, 
are narrowest at the basal end. Stomata occur sparingly. 

2. Hypoderm or Sarkogen Layer (hy). Tschierske has shown that 
the fleshy receptacle of the strawberry owes its origin to a hypodermal 
layer of meristematic cells, which are mostly tangentially elongated, 
and are always without intercellular spaces. These cells, to which he 
gives the name "sarkogen layer," resemble the phellogen or cork-forming 
cells of other plants, but differ in that the new cells are formed centripe- 
tally and remain active during the whole period of growth, whereas the 
cork cells are formed centrifugally and die soon after formation. The 
cells increase in size in radial directions, and divide by tangential par- 
titions. After they have performed their mission they continue to increase 
in size, but hold to their original shape. 

3. Cortical Tissue. The daughter cells formed by the division of 
the cells of the sarkogen layer increase rapidly in size, become round 
in shape, and form intercellular spaces. This tissue forms the bulk 
of the ripe fruit. Each cell is rich in contents, which, on cooking or 
treatment with alcohol, yield a shriveled, opaque mass. 

4. Bundles. Spiral and annular vessels from 5-10 /« in diameter, 
and thin-walled, elongated cells, are the conspicuous elements of the 
bundles. 



346 



FRUIT. 



5. Pith. Large berries often contain large intercellular spaces or 
cavities in the pith, formed by the tearing asunder of the cells during the 
rapid growth. 

Pericarp (Fig. 258). i. Epicarp (epi). In surface view, the cells 
are polygonal, 15-50 /« in diameter, with thin walls. The cuticle is 
several times as thick as the radial walls of the cells. 

2. Mesocarp (mes). This layer is strikingly different from the meso- 
carp of most edible fruits in that it is not succulent, and consists of only 




Fig, 258. Strawberry. Achene in transverse section. F pericarp consists of epi epicarp, 
mes mesocarp, sp spiral vessels, k crystal layer, // outer endocarp with longitudinally 
extended fibers, and gf inner endocarp with transversely extended fibers; 5 spermoderm 
consists of ep epidermis with reticulated cells, and br elongated brown cells; A^ peri- 
sperm; E endosperm consists of a single layer of aleurone cells. X300. (Winton.) 

one, or in some parts two, cell-layers. In cross section the cells have 
much the same appearance as the epidermal cells, but usually have 
smaller dimensions. On the inner side are numerous bundles, the branches 
of which run transversely about the achene. 

3. Crystal Layer (k). The cells are polygonal, 8-20 ,« in diameter. 
The monoclinic crystals are always simple. 

4. Outer Endocarp (//). This layer, forming the larger part of the 
pericarp, is made up of five or more thicknesses of sclerenchyma fibers 
longitudinally arranged. The cell-walls are distinctly porous and about 
as thick as the lumen. 

5. The Inner Endocarp (qf) consists of the same elements as the outer 
endocarp, but is only one or two cell- layers thick, and the cells are ar- 
ranged transversely. On the dorsal side some of the fibers of this layer 
extend radially through the outer endocarp, thus facilitating the rup- 
ture of the pericarp during sprouting. 



STRAIVBERRY. 



347 



Spennoderm (Figs. 258 and 259). i. The Epidermis (ep) is of thin- 
walled polygonal cells. The cell-walls are exceedingly thin, but are 
strengthened by spirally reticulated bands, which do not pass completely 
around the cell, but are wanting on the outer surface, so that in mounting 
a preparation the outer wall often collapses and the side walls fall down, 
presenting the appearance shown in Fig. 259. 

2. Brown Layer (hr). The second layer of the spermoderm is com- 
posed of transversely elongated brown cells, often arranged side by side 





Fig. 259. Strawberry. Spermoderm FiG. 260. Straw- 

and endosperm in surface view. berry. Style and 

ep reticulated epidermis of spermo- stigma. X32. 

derm; 6r brown cells; £ endosperm. (Winton.) 
X 300. (Winton.) 



Fig. 261. Strawberry. 
Style in surface view, ep 
transparent epidermis; 
sp spiral vessels; k crystal 
cells. X 300. (Winton.) 



in rows. They vary up to 100 /< in length, and usually between 10- 
15 /( in width. 

Perisperm (A^). This coat consists for the most part of obliterated 
cells forming a cellulose layer from 2-4 /z thick, but on the ventral side 
the cells are often well defined. 

Endosperm (£). This consists of a single layer of aleurone cells. 

Embryo. Two large cotyledons, each in cross-section semielliptical, 
make up the bulk of the embryo. The thin-walled cells contain pro- 
tein and fat but no starch. 

Style and Stigma (Figs. 260 and 261). The strawberry style is dis- 
tinguished from the styles of other edible rosaceous fruits by its constricted 
base and the large size and transparency of the epiderm cells. It is 
about 0.3 mm. in diameter in the middle part, but tapers somewhat toward 



348 FRUIT. 

the stigma, and very markedly toward tlie base, where it is less than 
O.I mm. in diameter. The epidermal cells {ep) are for the most part 
about 40 /£ wide, 100-150 fx long, and (as may be seen on the margins, 
by focusing) 50 /£ thick. The central core appears darker than the 
transparent margins, owing to the greater density of the parts as well 
as to the greater thickness. Treatment with alkah discloses spiral and 
annular vessels, also rows of accompanying crystal cells {k), each con- 
taining a crystal rosette. 

Fungous growths often completely hide the papillae of the stigma, 
even after treatment with reagents or cooking, 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Styles and achenes may be readily picked out with forceps and exam- 
ined as to their size and shape under a lens. The styles (Figs. 260 and 
261), transparent in the fresh fruit, and rendered still more so by the 
boiling with sugar, may be studied under the compound microscope 
without further treatment. Their size (2 mm. long), narrow base and 
large transparent epidermal cells, are especially characteristic; but the 
spiral vessels accompanied by crystal clusters, and the stigma, often 
bristling with fungous threads, further aid in the identification. Crystals 
are clearly differentiated by the aid of polarizing apparatus. 

For the study of the pericarp and seed, cross sections (Fig. 258) should 
be prepared, holding the achene between pieces of soft wood or in a 
hand-vice during the cutting. Especially striking are the two crossing 
endocarp layers of sclerenchyma fibers, the endosperm of a single cell 
layer, and the relatively large embryo. The reticulated cells of the outer 
layer of the spermoderm are highly characteristic. 

The hairs (Fig. 257, h) of the receptacle are characterized by their 
length (often i mm.) and narrow lumen. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Blyth (5). 
Kraus: Ueber den Bau trockner Pericarpien. Pringsh. Jahrb. 1866, 5, 83. 
Marpmann: Beitrage zur mikroskopischen Untersuchung der Fruchtmarmeladen. 

Ztschr. angew. Mikr. 1896, 2, 97. 
TscHiERSKE : Beitrage zur vergleichenden Anatomic und Entwicklungsgeschichte einiger 

Dryadeenfrlichte. Ztschr. Naturwissenschaft. 1886, 59, 594. 
WiNTON: Beitrage zur Anatomie des Beerenobstes. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm. 

1902, 5, 785. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1902, 288. 



RED RASPBERRY. 



349 



RED RASPBERRY. 

Ruhus IdcBus L. occurs native in various part of the Old World and 
is the parent of the raspberries cultivated in European gardens. 

Bailey ^ states that the red raspberries cultivated in America are 
offspring of the native R. sirigosus Michx., which, however, is closely 
related to the European raspberry R. Idceus L. The yellow varieties 
are but albino forms of these species. 

The raspberr)', blackberry, and other bramble fruits (Ruhis) are 
intermediate in both macroscopic and microscopic structure between 
the strawberry (Fragaria) and the stone fruits (Primus). They resemble 
the strawberry in that they are aggregate fruits with numerous indi- 
vidual fruitiets on a common receptacle (although unlike the straw- 
berry, the cortex of the receptacle is not fleshy and bears the fruitiets 
on elevations, not in depressions); and they resemble the stone fruits 
in the structure of the pericarp and seed, each individual fruitlet 
being in fact a minature drupe. The resemblance between the rasp- 
berry drupelet and the peach is especially striking. In both the epi- 
carp is pubescent, the mesocarp is fleshy, the endocarp (Fig. 262, /// 




Fig. 262. Red Raspberry (Ruhus strigosus). I aggregate fruit, Xi. // cross section 
of a drupelet, X32: £/>/ epicarp; i/y hypoderm; Me^ mesocarp; 7^ outer endocarp; 
F' inner endocarp; 5 spermoderm; R raphe; E endosperm; Em embryo. Ill stone, 
Xi. /F stone, X 8. (Winton.) 



and IV) is a hard stone with wrinkles on the surface and the united 
spermoderm and endosperm form a thin coat for the relatively large 
embryo. They are also very similar in minute structure, as is noted 
further on. 

^ The Evolution of Our Native Fruits. London, 1898, 287. 



35° FRUIT. 

The drupelets are crowded together on the top and sides of the recep- 
tacle, each having a convex top or exposed surface and four to seven 
facets on the sides formed by the pressure of the adjoining drupelets 
(Fig. 262, /). These facets are usually slightly convex or concave. Owing 
to their crowded arrangement the thickness of the flesh in the sides of 
the drupelets is much less than in the outer part. The exposed surface 
and the angles between the facets are pubescent, the facets themselves 
glabrous. In picking a raspberry the drupelets separate from the 
receptacle, clinging together in the form of a cup. Tschierske states 
that the individuals cling together, first because of the closely fitting 
adjoining facets, the slightly convex surface of one fitting into a cor- 
responding concave surface of another, and second because of the in- 
terlocking of the crooked hairs. The style is about 4 mm. long and 
arises from the upper edge of the exposed surface of the drupe, appear- 
ing to come from between the drupelets. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Receptacle, i. The Epidermis resembles somewhat the epicarp of 
the fruit, but the hairs are less numerous and usually thicker walled. 

2. Cortex. As no sarkogen layer is developed in the raspberry the 
cortex layer is thin, the bulk of the receptacle being pith. 

3. Bundles. It follows from what has been stated that the main 
bundles run near the surface of the receptacle. They are shorter and 
more strongly developed than in the strawberry, with larger and more 
numerous vessels. 

4. The Pith consists of round parenchyma cells, devoid of cell-contents, 
with intercellular spaces. 

Pericarp, i. The Epicarp (Fig. 262, Epi; Fig. 263) on the facets of the 
drupelets consists entirely of polygonal cells, but on the exposed surfaces 
consists of polygonal cells and hairs, the hairs often being so numerous 
that they occur at two to four of the angles of the polygonal cells. Five 
or six cells frequently meet at the base of a hair, forming a rosette about 
it. The hairs vary greatly in length, up to 700 /«, and are seldom over 10 /j 
broad. Most of them have thin walls (0.5 to 1.5 p) of nearly uniform 
thickness {h) ; but some of the longer forms have thick walls and a narrow 
lumen resembling the strawberry hair (//'). The thin-walled hairs are 
commonly sinuous. 

2. Hypoderm (Fig. 262, Hy). Two or more cell-layers of collen- 



RED RASPBERRY. 



351 



chyma form the hypoderm, a water tissue serving to retard the evapora- 
tion of the fruit juice. 

3. Mesocarp (Fig. 262, Mes). The outer two or three layers of the 
mesocarp consist of isodiametric cells with intercellular spaces, inter- 
spersed with crystal cells; but further inward, at least in the thicker 
portion of the fruit, the cells are enormously elongated in radial directions 
and are without intercellular spaces. Tschierske points out that the 
succulent nature of the fruit results from the radial growth of cells, not 
as in the strawberry from the formation of numerous isodiametric cells by 
a meristematic layer. 

As in all the species of Rubus, cells with crystal clusters are common, 




Fig. 263. Red Raspberry. Epicarp with h' straight hair, h sinuous hairs, and sto stoma, 

X160. (WiNTON.) 

particularly near the base of the style. Reticulated cells occur in the 
inner layers adjoining the endocarp. 

4. Outer Endocarp (Fig 262, F; Fig. 264, //). Owing to the deep 
wrinkles, the thickness of this coat is exceedingly variable. As in the 
strawberry, the sclerenchyma fibers are longitudinally arranged and 
cross those of the inner endocarp at right angles. The fibers are a 
little narrower than in the latter fruit and in cross sections are usually 
elliptical polygonal, with the longer diameters in radial directions. 

5. Inner Endocarp (Fig. 262, F'; Fig. 264, q}). The fibers of this coat, 
of which there are four or more thicknesses, are the same as in the outer 
endocarp, but run transversely about the fruit. 

Spermoderm (Fig. 264, S). The seed coats of the bramble fruits 
resemble closely those of the stone fruits, the chief difference being that 
the epidermal stone cells are wanting. 



352 



FRUIT. 



1. Epidermis (cp). The cells arc polygonal in surface view, the average 
diameter being 35 ft and the maximum 70 /<. In transverse section they 
are cushion-shaped, with a cuticularizcd outer wall. 

2. Nutritive Layer (p). The cells in this layer, having fulfilled their 
mission, are empty and are often more or less collapsed. 




Fig. 264. Red Raspberry. Endocarp and outer portion of seed in cross section. End 
endocarp consists of // longitudinally extended fibers and qf transversely extended 
fibers; S spermoderm consists of ep epidermis, p parenchyma (nutritive laj'er), and iep 
inner epidermis ; N perisperm ; E endosperm with k aleurone grains. X 300. (Winton.) 



3. Broivn Layer (iep). The inner layer of the spermoderm consists 
of cells of the same kind as in the outer epidermis, but only about half 
as large, the maximum diameter in surface view being 30 /x and the average 
20 /(. These cells arc readily distinguished from those of the neighbor- 
ing layer by their thicker walls and yellow -brown color. 



RED RASPBERRY. 



353 



Perisperm (Fig. 264, N). As in the strawberry, all that remains of 
this tissue is the layer of obliterated cells, which in section appears as the 
thickened outer wall of the endosperm. 

The Endosperm (Fig. 264, E) is made up of aleurone 
cells with remnants of other cells adjoining the embryo. 
On the two broader sides of the elliptical section there 
are five or six cell-layers, but the number diminishes 
toward both the ventral and dorsal sides, where there 
are only two or three. 

Embryo (Fig. 262, Em). The structure of the 
embryo is practically the same as in the strawberry. 

Style (Figs. 265 and 266). i. The Epidermal Cells 
(ep) are much smaller than in the strawberr}^, and 
owing to numerous wrinkles on the surface are not so 
transparent. These wrinkles may be brought out 
clearly either by treating specimens with iodine as 
recommended by Tschierske, or better, by bleaching 
with Javelle water and staining with safranin. ^On the 
broadened basal portion of the style are scattering 
hairs like those of the epicarp. 

2. Bundles. After heating the style with dilute 
alkali, the vessels (sp) and accompanying isodiametric 
crystal cells (k) are clearly evident. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Styles and stones (seeds with inclosing endocarp) 
are evident to the naked eye. 

The styles (Figs. 265 and 266) may be examined 
directly under the microscope as in the case of the 
strawberry, and are identified by their length. (4 mm.), 
broadened base with hairs, and small, wrinkled epider- 
mal cells. Vessels and crj'stal cells are also striking 
elements. 

The stones (Fig. 262, ///, IV) are distinguished 
from seeds of other genera by their characteristic 
wrinkled surface and from blackberry stones by their 
smaller size. Cross sections (Fig. 264) show the two 
layers of endocarp, the spermoderm with cells of the 
outer epidermis twice the diameter of those of the inner epidermis, the 
endosperm of several cell layers, and the embryo. 



Fig. 265. Raspberry. 
Style and stigma. 

X32. (WiNTON.) 




354 FRUIT. 

The epicarp (Fig. 263), the hairs of which are mostly blunt, narrow 
(10 {i), thin-walled and sinuous, also the cr}^stal cells of the underlying 
mesocarp, may be readily found in mounts prepared 
r""^^ "^^91 oT» ^'"o"^ ^^^^ gelatinous portion of the product. The 
hairs are easily distinguished from those of the 
peach and apricot which are broad (10-25 A*)) 
nearly straight, and have walls thicker than the 
breadth of the lumen. Vascular elements are almost 

entirely wanting, as the receptacle is not picked 
Fig. 266. Raspberry. . r • 

Style in surface view. with the fruit. 
ep epidermis; sp spiral 
vessel; ^ crystal cells. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

•^°°' ^ '' See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Villiers et Collin (42). 

Marpmann: Beitrage zur mikroskopischen Untersuchung der Fruchtmarme laden. 

Ztschr. angew. Mikr. 1896, 2, 102. 
Tschierske: Beitrage zur vergleichenden Anatomie und Entwickelungsgeschichte 

einiger Dryadeenfriichte. Ztschr. Naturwissenschaft. 1886, 59, 612. 
WiNTON: Beitrage zur Anatomie des Beerenobstes. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm. 

1902, 5, 785. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1902, 288. 

BLACK RASPBERRY. 

Ruhus occidentalis L., a native of the northern United States, is 
the parent of the black varieties. It differs from the red raspberry 
chiefly in the smaller size of the drupelets and their deep purple-black 
color, due to the dark claret-red cell juice. The pits of both are about 
the same size and shape. 

The black raspberry has practically the same microscopic structure 
as the red species. 

Black raspberry jam or preserve is of a deep claret-red color and 
the seeds are stained the same color. 

BLACKBERRY. 

Riihus jruticosus grows wild in various parts of Europe, but is sel- 
dom cultivated. 

In North America three native species are of importance: the tall 
blackberry {R. nigrohaccus Bailey), the short cluster blackberry {R. nigro- 
baccus var. sativus Bailey), and the dewberry, or running blackberry 
{R. villosus Alton). These are not only common wild plants, but have 
given rise to numerous cultivated varieties.^ 

1 Bailev: The Evolution of our Native Fruits. London, 1S98, 366, 379. 



BLACKBERRY. 



355 



In macroscopic and microscopic structure the berries of all the species 
named are practically alike. 

The blackberry agrees with the raspberry in general structure, but 
differs in the following details: (i) The drupelets are glabrous or, in 



,sto 




Fig. 267. Blackberry {Rubiis nigrobaccus). Outer layers of pericarp in surface view. 
epi epicarp with sto stoma; hy hypoderm; k crystal cells. X160. (Winton.) 

the case of the dewberry, sparingly hairy. (2) The drupelets are hrmly 

attached to the receptacle by broad bases and do not separate from the 

latter on picking the fruit. There is really no 

epidermis of the receptacle as the surface is 

almost completely covered by the bases of the 

drupelets, the epicarp of one being continuous 

with that of the adjoining drupelet. (3) As may 

be seen from Fig. 268, the pits resemble those 

of the raspberry in shape and markings, but 

are much larger. (4) The styles (Fig. 269) are 

but 2 mm. long and commonly arise from a marked depression in the 

drupelet. They are free from hairs and do not broaden at the base. 




Fig. 268. Blackberry. 
Stone, Xi and X32. 
(Winton.) 



HISTOLOGY. 

Receptacle. The structure of the receptacle differs in no essential 
detail from that of the raspberry. 

Pericarp (Fig. 267). i. Epicarp (epi). The cells are for the most 
part elongated, the longer diameters extending in latitudinal directions 
on the sides of the drupelets, and in concentric circles about the styles. 
Stomata are always present, hairs never in R. nigrobaccus, seldom in 
R. villosus. 



S56 



FRUIT. 



2. Hypoderm (hy). As in the epicarp, the cells are commonly elon- 
gated, but arc much larger and extend in longitudinal directions. 

3. Mesocarp. This layer is much the same as in the raspberry. 
Crystal clusters {k) are numerous, especially near the surface. 

4. Endocarp. As in the raspberry, the sclerenchymatized fibers of 
the endocarp have secondary and tertiary membranes and run longi- 
tudinally in the outer, and latitudinally in the inner 
layer. Both coats, however, are thicker than in the 
raspberr}^, the inner consisting of 6-10 cell-layers. 

Spermodenn. It has been noted that the outer 
epidermis of the raspberry spermoderm is made up of 
polygonal cells with about twice the diameter of those 
in the inner epidermis. The reverse is true in the case 
of the blackberry, the spermoderm being much the 
same as a raspberry spermoderm turned inside out. 
The average diameter of the outer epidermal cells is 
about 25 /^, the maximum 40 /i, whereas the average 
diameter of the inner epidermal cells is 40 /t and the 
maximum 60 //. 

Style (Fig. 269). The epidermal cells are about 
the same size as in the raspberry, but are not wrinkled 
to any appreciable extent. Hairs are entirely wanting. 
Crystals and vessels are conspicuous in alkah prepa- 
rations. 

DIAGNOSIS. 




Fig. 269. Blackberry. Examination of blackberry preserves is made as 

X32 TwintonO ■ described under raspberry. Styles (Fig. 269) are less 
numerous than in the latter and are distinguished by 
their shorter length, and the absence of hairs and wrinkles. In cooked 
products it is not usually evident that the styles arise from a depression 
in the drupelet. The seeds (Fig. 268) are larger than in raspberries, but 
in histological structure are very similar. They are, however, distin- 
guished from the latter by the thicker inner endocarp and by the fact that 
the cells of the outer epidermis of the spermoderm are about half the 
diameter of tho.se of the inner epidermis; whereas, in the raspberry the 
reverse is true. In blackberry preserves, unlike that made from rasp- 
berries, hairs are few or entirely absent; but tissues of the receptacle, 
notably the vascular elements, are present. 

Compared with the strawberr}-, the bundles are shorter but more 



BLACKBERRY. RED CURRANT. 357 

Strongly developed, with larger and more numerous vessels. Elongated 
epidermal cells and crystal clusters are also distinguishable. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Godfrin: Etude histologique sur les tegument seminaux des Angiospermes. Soc. d. 

Sci. d. Nancy, 1880, 109. 
Lampe: Zur Kenntniss des Baues und der Entwickelung saftiger Friichte. Ztschr. 

Naturw. 1886, 59, 295. 
WiNTON: Beitrage zur Anatomie des Beerenobstes. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm. 

1902, 5, 785. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1902, 288. 



SAXIFRAGACEOUS FRUITS {Saxifragaceo'). 

The bush fruits of this family yield many-seeded berries, wilh 
withered remains of the floral parts at the extremity. The epicarp is 
either smooth (red currant), glandular (black currant), or prickly (some 
species of gooseberry). Only in the currants is the endocarp sclerenchy- 
matized. The seeds are characterized by the large inflated epidermal 
cells, and the crystal layer of the spermoderm, the bulky thick-walled 
endosperm containing aleurone grains, and the minute embryo. 

RED CURRANT. 

Both the red and white garden varieties of currant are derived from 
the European species, Rihes rubruni E. 

The calyx tube is united with the ovary, and the fruit (a true berry) 
bears on the summit the shriveled remains of the floral parts (Fig. 270, 
/). The deeply five-cleft bell-shaped calyx tube bears in its throat five 
petals much smaller than the calyx lobes and alternating with them, and 
five stamens opposite the lobes. The short style, about half the length 
of the calyx, is deeply two-cleft. The midribs of each of the floral envelopes, 
ten in number, are continued in the fruit in the form of longitudinal veins 
and are clearly seen through the transparent epicarp. The anatropous 
seeds, ohe to eight in number, are borne on two parietal placentae (Fig. 
270, //). As a result of the crowded arrangement they are usually flattened 
on one or more sides. The outer spermoderm (Fig. 270, ///, S) is gelat- 
inous and transparent, and through it may be seen the delicate thread- 
like raphe and the brown hard inner spermoderm. The minute embryo 
(Fig. 270, ///, Em) is embedded in the base of the endosperm. 



358 



FRUIT. 



Divested of the gelatinous coat the seeds are from 4 to 5 mm. long and 
from 3 to 4 mm. broad (Fig. 270, IV and V). 



HISTOLOGY. 

Pericarp (Fig. 271). i. Epicarp (epi). In parts the walls are thick- 
ened with narrow pores; in other parts the walls are not thickened at 



IV 





Fig. 270. Red Currant {Ribes ruhrum). /fruit, Xi. 77 cross section of fruit with seeds, 
Xi. 7/7 longitudinal section of seed, X8: 5 gelatinous epidermis of spermoderm; 
S' inner spermoderm; R raphe; E endosperm; Em embryo. IV seed deprived of 
gelatinous coat, Xi. V same as IV, X8. (Winton.) 

all, or only here and there. Frequently strongly beaded cells are divided 
by thin partitions into two daughter cells. Stomata are numerous. Cross 
sections show that the cells are considerably broader than thick. 




Fig. 271. Red Currant. Outer layers of pericarp in surface view, epi epicarp with sto 
stoma; hy hypoderm; B vascular bundle or vein seen through the transparent outer 
layers of the fruit. X160. (Winton.) 

2. Hypoderm (hy). Two or three cell layers of collenchymatous cells 
underlie the epidermis. In surface view they are polygonal with diam- 



RED CURRANT. 



359 



eters twice or more those of the epidermal cells. Their collenchymatous 
character is seen in a cross section. 

3. Mesocarp. The cells are isodiametric (100 -300 /j), with thin 
walls and numerous intercellular spaces. Radiating from the bundles 
are elongated cells. Crystal rosettes abound in the inner layer. 

4. Endocarp (Fig. 272). Unlike the gooseberr}% the currant has a 
sclerenchymatous endocarp. The long cells are arranged in groups, each 




Fig. 272. Red Currant. Endocarp in surface view. X160. (Winton.) 

group consisting of five to fifteen cells side by side. The cells of adjoin- 
ing groups may extend either in the same or different directions. Curious 
fan-shaped forms result from the junction of several groups. As a rule 
the cavity is much thinner than the walls and oftentimes is reduced to a 
mere line. Numerous pores connect adjoining cells and some pierce the 
walls separating these cells from the mesocarp. The cells range in length 
up to 500 n\ the thickness of the double walls is 5-20 /z. 

Spermoderm (Fig. 273, S). i. Mucilage Cells (aep). The outer 
layer consists of large, thin-walled cells filled with gelatinous matter. 
They are about 90 j^ in tangential diameter but often have a radial diam- 
eter of over 500 fi. On the outer surface they are usually convex. Owing 
to the great size of the cells, this coat, although but a single cell-layer 
thick, forms a considerable part of the bulk of the seed. 



360 



FRUIT. 



2. Parenchyma (p). Beneath the mucilage cells are several layers 
of more or less flattened parenchymatous cells with intercellular 
spaces* The cells of the inner layers are smaller and flatter than in the 
outer. 

3. Crystal Layer (Figs. 273 and 275, ^). In surface view the deep 
brown, thick- walled cells of this layer are sharply polygonal with diam- 




> S 



E 



Fig, 273. Red Currant. Seed in cross section. 5 spermoderm consists of aep gelatinous 
outer epidermis, p parenchyma (nutritive layer), k crystal layer, and iep brown layer 
(inner epidermis); N perisperm; E endosperm. X300. (Winton.) 

eters from 8 to 20 «. The middle lamella is colorless, the thick mem- 
brane, brown. Each cell contains a single monoclinic crystal, which 
nearly or completely fills the cell cavity. 

With crossed Nicol prisms these crystals appear as luminous spots in 
the black background, disappearing on addition of a drop of hydrochloric 
acid. In section it may be seen that only the radial and inner walls are 
thickened, and that as a consequence each crystal lies close to the thin 
outer wall. 

4. Inner Epidermis (Figs. 273 and 275, iep). Like the crystal layer, 
the inner epidermis is of a deep -brown color, but this color is due to cell- 
contents, not to thickened cell-waUs. The cells are longitudinally elon- 
gated, var}dng in length up to 150 /^ and in width from 4 to 9 //. Both 
this layer and the crystal layer are readily separated from the endosperm 
by soaking in dilute alkah and scraping. 



RED CURRANT. 



361 



Perisperm (Fig. 273, N). A cross section of the seed shows a cellulose 
band about 10 /i thick between the spermoderm and the endosperm, 
consisting of the obliterated cells of the nucellus. 

The Endosperm (Figs. 273 and 275, E) consists of thick-walled cells 
containing aleurone grains and fat. In the outer layers the cells are 
radially elongated, with walls of even thickness (2 /i), but in the center of the 
seed they are isodiametric, often with knotty thickened walls (Fig. 274). 



DIAGNOSIS. 

Cells of the endocarp (Fig. 272) are the most conspicuous and char- 
acteristic elements of preserves. Fragments of the epicarp and floral 
parts are also evident but are of less value in identification. The outer 
gelatinous coat of the seed is destroyed by cooking, but the crystal layer 
and the inner epidermis retain their 



r«-5v%,/ 



K 



lep 



original form and may be identified 

in surface mounts (Fig. 275) prepared ^ . - >-j Q ^'\^ 

by warming in dilute alkali and /^"^ \ v^ '^iyJ" '""' ^ 

xT^, On: "^^-V -^>_' '^ ^\ 







A 



•^> 



^:^u^ 




Fig. 274. Red Currant. Cross sec- 
tion of central portion of endo- 
sperm. X 300. (WiNTON.) 



Fig. 275. Red Currant. Surface view of K 
crystal layer, iep inner epidermis of spermo- 
derm, and E endosperm. X 300. (Winton.) 



scraping with a scalpel. Sections of the seed are sometimes useful, but 
as a rule an examination of the spermoderm in surface view is sufficient. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Blyth (5); Villiers et Collin (42). 
Garcin: Recherches sur I'histogenese des pericarpes charnus. Ann. Soc. nat. Bot. Ser. 

VII, 1890, 12, 175. 
Lampe: Zur Kenntniss des Baues und der Entwickelung saftiger Friichte. Ztschr. 

Naturwissenschaft. 1886, 59, 295. 
Winton : Beitrage zur Anatomie des Beerenobstes. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm. 

1902, 5, 785. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1902, 288. 



362 



FRUIT. 



BLACK CURRANT. 

The Black Currant (Ribes nigrum L.), a native of the Old "World, is 
cultivated both in Europe and America. 

In external appearance the fruit is distinguished from the red currant 
by its black color and by the longer floral parts. The seeds are some- 
what smaller and more numerous (about 15 in each berry) than in the 
red varieties. 

The calyx is about 7 mm. long, and the lobes are reflexed. On 
the outer surface and on the inner surface at the ends the lobes are 
clothed with numerous hairs; but the throat is smooth, as are also the 
petals and the style. The latter is entire for at least three-fourths its 
length, but two-lobed at the end. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The cells of the Epicarp (Fig. 276, epi) are beaded and of about the 
same size as in the red currant. Here and there are bright-yellow disc- 




FiG. 2 76. Black Currant (Ribes nigrum), epi epicarp with d gland, in surface view. 

(WiNTON.) 



X160. 



shaped glands (d) which often exceed 170 /« in diameter. Meyen noted 
that they occur m still greater numbers on the leaves, and that they agree 
in structure with the glands of the hop. Each gland consists of a single 
layer of cells in the form of a disc, joined in the middle to the epicarp 



BLACK CURRANT. GOOSEBERRY. 363 

by means of a short several-celled stalk. The yellow oily secretion to 
which the plant owes its characteristic odor and flavor is contained in 
the reservoir formed by the separation of the outer cuticle from the cells. 

The Mesocarp, Endocarp, and Seed have the same general structure 
as the same parts of the red currant. 

Under the microscope the calyx hairs have the same appearance 
as those on the epicarp of the raspberry. They are crooked, blunt- 
pointed, thin- walled, and vary in length up to 600 «. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Black currant preserves, jams, etc., have a red-black color, and the 
characteristic spicy flavor of the fresh fruit. They are further distinguished 
from similar products made from red currants by the glands on the epi- 
carp (Fig. 276,) the longer floral parts, the hairs on the outer surface of 
the calyx, and the smaller seeds. 

The mesocarp, endocarp, and lead tissues of the red and black cur- 
rant are the same in structure. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Lampe: Zur Kenntniss des Baues und der Entwickelung saftiger Friichte. Ztschr. 

Naturw. 1886, 59, 295. 
Meyen: Secretionsorgane d. Pflanzen. Berlin, 1837. 
WiNTON: Beitrage zur Anatomie des Beerenobstes. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm. 

1902, 5, 785. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1902, 288. 



GOOSEBERRY. 

The European or prickly gooseberry (Ribes Grossularla L.) is one 
of the most valuable small fruits cultivated in Great Britain and the 
Continent, but is seldom grown in America owing to the mildew to which 
it is there subject. The varieties cultivated in the United States are 
largely derived from a smooth fruited native species, R. oxyacanthoides L. 

The fruit has much the same general structure as the currant, but is 
larger (i to 2 cm. in diameter), the calyx and style are longer (6 mm. in 
length), and are pubescent, and the smooth or prickly pericarp is thicker 
(Fig. 277). The gelatinous coat of the seed is thicker (often 2 mm. 
thick on the raphe side), but the seed freed from this coat is about the 
same size as in the currant, although somewhat narrower and more nearly 
terete. Except for the prickles, the European and American gooseberry 
are identical in structure. 



3^4 



FRUIT. 



HISTOLOGY. 

Pericarp, i. The Epicarp Cells are polygonal 'and more 
beaded like those of the red currant. 

The Prickles have a broad base and are often over i mm. long, 
have a blunt point, others, a head of globular 
form. Both forms are shown in Fig. 278. 

The Epidermal Cells of the prickles are elon- 
gated, and are arranged end to end in longitudinal 
rows. At the base they pass into the isodia- 
metric cells of the epicarp. 

2. The Hypoderm is the same as in the red 
currant. 



or less 
Some 





Fig. 277. American Gooseberry {Ribes oxyacan- 
thoides). I whole fruit, Xi. II transverse sec- 
tion of fruit with seeds, X i . /// seeds deprived 
of gelatinous coat, X 8. (Winton.) 



Fig. 278. European Gooseberry 
(Ribes Grossularia). Prickles 
with and without globular head. 
X32. (Winton.) 



3. Mesocarp. This layer is composed of extraordinarily large cells 
(often 500 [i in diameter), which are evident to the naked eye and are 
separated from each other by a network of cells hardly 50 /x in diameter. 
In the inner layers the small cells are less numerous or entirely lacking. 
Crystal clusters are abundant, particularly in the inner layers. 

4. The Endocarp consists of a layer of parenchyma cells with walls 
so thin that they are studied with difficulty, and is quite different from 
the sclerenchymatous endocarp of the currants. 

Spermoderm, Endosperm, and Embryo. The microscopic structure of 
the seed is practically the same as that of the currant seed. 

Floral Parts (Fig. 279). The remains of the floral parts are usually 
deep brown, and can be studied to advantage only after bleaching, prefer- 
ably with Javelle water, and staining. A prominent midvein runs from 
the base almost to the apex of each of the calyx and corolla lobes. 
About four secondary veins branching near the base, partly from the 
calyx midrib, partly from the corolla midrib, also run nearly to the 



GOOSEBERRY. 



365 



apex of the calyx lobes. Lateral branches from the midribs are numer- 
ous in the corolla, less so in the calyx. 

The epidermal cells of the calyx are for the most part slightly elon- 




FlG. 279. Gooseberry. Floral parts. 

(WiNTON.) 



X5. 




Fig. 280. Gooseberry. Epider- 
mis from margin of calyx, with 
hairs, X160. (Winton.) 



gated, and are arranged end to end in longitudinal rows. Near the ends 

of the lobes they have wa\'y outlines. The outer surface of the calyx 

and the upper part of the inner surface bear only a 

few scattering hairs. The calyx throat, however, is 

densely pubescent. These hairs are all thin-walled, 

and vary in length up to i mm. or more, the longest 

being in the calyx throat (Figs. 280 and 281). 

The deeply parted styles are covered with epider- 
mal cells, for the most part quadrilateral and arranged 
end to end in rows, and on the lower half bear 
numerous thin-walled hairs i mm. or more in length. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The epidermis, mcsocarp, and seed have the same 
structure as the corresponding parts of the currant, 
but the cndocarp is not sclerenchymatized and is 
not evident in preserves. The floral parts (Fig. 279) 
are of about the same length as in the black currant "~^-iji^- 

(6 mm.), but the calyx throat and the styles bear Fig. 281. Gooseberry. 
numerous long hairs (Fig. 281), whereas these parts in throa"'orcalyx/wit"h 
the black currant are smooth, or only sparingly ^^^'"- X160. (\Vin- 
pubescent. 




366 FRUIT. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Blyth (5). 
Garcin: Recherches sur I'histogenese des pericarpes charnus. Ann. Soc. nat. Bot. Ser. 

VII, 1890, 12, 175. 
Marpmann: Beitrage zur mikroskopischen Untersuchung der Fruchtmarmeladen. 

Ztschr. angew. Mikr. 1896, 2, 97. 
Winton: Beitrage zur Anatomie des Beerenobstes. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm 

1902, 5, 785. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1902, 288. 



ERICACEOUS FRUITS {Ericacec^). 

The fruits are either several-celled berrieg, each cell containing a 
number of seeds (cranberry, blueberry), or ten-celled drupes (huckle- 
berr}'). 

The smooth epicarp bears short triangular calyx teeth. Groups of 
stone cells occur in the mesocarp of the huckleberry, but are lacking in 
the mesocarp of the other species. The endocarp in the cranberry is 
of thin- walled elements; in the blueberry, of thin-walled cells interspersed 
with groups of stone cells; in the huckleberry, of a dense mass of stone 
cells. The spermoderm of the cranberry and blueberry is characterized 
by the elongated, thick-walled, porous cells. 

CRANBERRY. 

Bailey^ states that the cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon Ait.), the 
most unique of American horticultural products, was first cultivated, 
or rescued from mere wild bogs, about 1810. The varieties now known 
are over a hundred, all having been picked up in bogs, and the annual 
product in the' United States is more than 800,000 bushels. 

The cowberry, or mountain cranberry, Vaccinium Vitis-IdcEa L., is 
gathered in great quantities in Canada, where it is used for sauces. It 
is also a native of Europe, where it is much prized as a culinary fruit. 

Different varieties of the cultivated cranberry \Qxy in shape (spherical, 
oval, pear-shaped), in color (pink, red, maroon, mottled), and in size 
(diameter up to 15 mm.). 

The epicarp is smooth, and bears on the summit four short tooth- 
like calyx lobes, which are usually bent inward. Between the calyx lobes 

' The Evolution of Our Native Fruits. London, 1898, 414, 424. 



CRANBERRY. 



367 



is a circular spot with a dot in the center, formed by the dropping of the 
floral parts (Fig. 282, /). 

The berry is four-celled, each cell containing on a central placenta 
a number of seeds which fill only a small part of the otherwise empty 
cavity (Fig. 282, //). 

In the nearly ripe fruit only the epicarp is colored, the other parts 
being white; but in the fully ripe fruit all the tissues are usually red. 







Fig. 282. Cultivated Cranberry {Vaccinium macrocarpon). I berry seen from above, 
Xi. // cross section of berry, Xi. /// seed, X8. IV cross section of seed, X15: 
S epidermis of spermoderm; S' inner spermoderm; R raphe; E endosperm; Em 
embryo. (Winton.) 

The yellow short-beaked seeds have a thick spermoderm and a bulky 
endosperm in the axis of which is an elongated embryo of moderate size, 
consisting chiefly of the radicle (Fig. 282, /// and IV). 

The mountain cranberry has practically the same macroscopic structure 
as the cultivated species, but is much smaller. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The following description applies to both the cultivated and the moun- 
tain cranberry, the two being nearly, if not quite, identical in microscopic 
structure. 

Pericarp, i. The Epicarp (Fig. 283) is very simple in structure, 
with cells as seen in surface view from 20 
to 50 IX in diameter, and cell- walls 3 [x thick. 
Cross sections show that this layer is about 
25 // thick and that the cuticle is strongly 
thickened. 

2. The Hypoderm (Fig. 283) is for the 
most part only one cell-layer thick, and the 
cells are more or less isodiametric in cross- 
section. Evaporation is largely prevented by p^^^g^ cultivated Cranberry, 
the thick cuticle, rendering a more strongly Epicarp and hypoderm. X160. 
developed hypoderm unnecessar}\ 

3. The Mesocarp cells are mostly isodiametric, and range up to 




S68 



FRUIT. 



200 // in diameter, but in the partitions between the fruit cavities they are 
somewhat smaller. 

4. Endocarp (Fig. 284). The cells are for the most part longitudi- 
nally extended and are more or less curved or wavy in outline. The in- 




{\A%„. 




Fig. 284. Cultivated Cranberry. Endocarp with stoma. Xi6o. (WiNTON.) 

distinctly porous cell-walls are somewhat thicker than those of the meso- 
carp, but unlike those in some Vaccinium species are not conspicuously 
thickened. Although stomata are entirely lacking in the epicarp, they 
occur in considerable numbers in the endocarp. 

Spermoderm. i. Epidermis (Fig. 285, ep; Fig. 286). Of all the 
tissues, this is the most characteristic and remarkable. The cells in the 
mature seed range in width up to 100 n, and in length up to 400 jx, but 
in abortive seeds are much smaller. As is seen in cross section, the 
outer walls (Fig. 285, ep) are thin and convex, but the deep-yellow or 
brown inner and radial walls are sclerenchymatously thickened (double 
walls often 20 n), and in addition the radial walls and sometimes the 
outer and inner walls have a transparent mucilaginous layer of distinctly 
stratified structure which nearly fills the cell cavity. Treated with chlor- 
zinc iodine the mucilaginous formation is stained blue, the cell-walls 



CRANBERRY. 



369 



proper remaining yellow. In V. Vitis-IdcEa the .outer and inner walls 
often have a swollen layer (Fig. 287). The sclerenchymatous radial 




Fig. 285. Cultivated Cranberry. Seed in cross section, ep epidermis of spermoderm 
^vith sclerenchymatized and mucilaginoiiB layers; m inner spermoderm; E endosperm 
X160. (WiNTON.) 




Fig. 2S6. Cultivated Cranberry. Epidermis of spermoderm in surface view. Xi6o. 

(WiNTON.) 

and inner walls are pierced with numerous pores which, in the immature 
or abortive seeds, are nearly circular, but in the fully ripe seeds are usu- 
ally much elongated. 




370 FRUIT. 

2. Inner Layers (Fig. 285, m). The remainder of the spermo- 
derm consists of two or three layers of large thick-walled porous cells, 
the innermost layers being more or less collapsed. In dried or cooked 
specimens, all of these cells are collapsed. 

The Endosperm (Fig. 285, E) contains aleurone grains but no starch. 

The Embryo is not remarkable. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Fragments of the cpicarp (Fig. 283) and endocarp (Fig. 284), 

bundles from the mesocarp, and seeds, may be found in preserves. The 

large porous epidermal cells of the spermo- 
derm, with sclerenchymatized and mucilage 
layers are characteristic and may be studied 
in surface preparations (Fig. 286). In un- 
ripe or abortive seeds these cells are smaller, 

''TW^fiv "S/LS'^CroS thinner-wdlcd, and have pores more nearly 
section of spermoclerm. Xi6o. round than in the mature seeds. Isolated 

stone cells detached from the spermoderm 

of immature seeds by cooking, sometimes occur in the gelatinous portion 

of the preserve. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Winton: Beitrage zur Anatomic des Beerenobstes. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Gcnussm. 
igo2, 5, 785. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1902, 288. 

BLUEBERRY. 

Vaccinium Myrtillus L. grows over an extended area in Europe, and 
the berries are used both as food and as medicine. 

Among the American species yielding edible berries similar to those 
of the European species are the tall or swamp blueberry (F. corymbosum 
L.) and two dwarf species (F. Pennsylvankiim Lam. and V. Canadense 
Kalm.), all of which are being introduced into cultivation. 

The berries of all the species named are black with a gray-blue bloom, 
globular, i cm. or less in diameter, and are crowned by five calyx teeth. 
Except for the bloom they are hardly distinguishable in external appear- 
ance from the huckleberry, which they further resemble in flavor, but 
in internal structure the two fruits have little in common. The dense 
endocarp tissue of the huckleberry is represented in the blueberr}' by 
a thin and soft, although partially sclerenchymatized, tissue; furthermore, 



BLUEBERRY. 



zn 



the locules of the former fruit contain but one seed, whereas in the latter 
they are several -seeded. On the other hand, the blueberry and cran- 
berry-, although strikingly different in color and flavor, are very similar 
both in gross and minute anatomy. 

HISTOLOGY.^ 

The important European and American species have practically the 
same structure. 

Pericarp, i. The Epicarp consists of polygonal cells like those of 
the cranberiT, but the contents are dark violet instead of red. 

2. The Hypodcrm of collenchyma cells is of no special interest. 

3. Mesocarp (Fig. 288). The cells are for the most part thin-walled, 
but here and there, especially near the bundles, the walls are sclerenchy- 




FlG. 288. Blueberry {Vaccmhun MyytiUus). Endocarp and mesocarp in surface view 

(R. MULLER.) 

matized without being greatly thickened. Thick-walled stone cells, suck 
as occur in the mesocarp of the huckleberry, are entirely wanting. Cr^^stal 
clusters abound in the inner layers. 

4. Endocarp (Fig. 288). This tissue, consisting of a single thin layer 
of loosely united stone cells, is intermediate between the parenchyma- 
tous endocarp of the cranberry on one hand, and the thick stone -cell tissue 
of the huckleberry endocarp on the other. These stone cells separate 
r eadily from one another and are remarkable for their diversity of size 

'Based largely on R. Miiller's exhaustive paper on the histolog^■ of the European 
blueberr}-. 



372 



FRUIT. 



and shape. Elongated cells, 15-50 n in breadth, usually predominate, 
although isodiametric forms are also common. Among the elongated 
cells are distorted L-, S-, and Y-shaped, as well as various grotesque, 
forms. Quite as variable are the isodiametric cells, which are triangular, 
quadrilateral, rounded, or exceedingly irregular with curious horn-like 
projections. 

Spermoderm. i. The Outer Epidermis (Fig. 289) is of large elon- 
gated cells, the inner halves of which are strongly sclerenchymatized 




Fig. 289. Blueberry. Epidermis of spermoderm in surface view. (R. MijLLER.) 

and porous. Except for the absence of the mucilaginous inner layers of 
the walls, the structure is like that of the corresponding coat of the cran- 
berry; 

2. The Middle Layers are of parenchyma cells, and 

3. The Inner Layers of obHterated elements forming in cross section 
a hyaline band. 

Endosperm and Embryo contain aleurone grains and fat. 



DIAGNOSIS. 

The epidermis of polygonal cells, the curious stone cells of the endo- 
carp (Fig. 288), and the whole seeds with the sclerenchymatized epider- 
mis (Fig. 289), are easily found in preserves and similar products. The 
absence of large stone cells in the mesocarp and of a dense endocarp in- 
closing each seed, as well as the structure of the seed itself, distinguishes 
the fruit from the huckleberry, while the dark color of the cell- contents 
and the presence of the curious endocarp stone cells furnish a ready 
means of distinction from the cranberry. 



HUCKLEBERRY. 



373 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Garcin : Recherches sur I'histogenese des pericarpes chamus. Ann. Soc. nat. Bot. Ser- 

VII, 1890, 12, 175. 
Lampe: Zur Kenntniss des Baues und der Entwickelung saftiger Friichte. Ztschr. 

Naturw. 1886, 59, 295. 
MiJLLER u Blau: Fructus ISIyrtilli. Phami. Post, Wien. 1902, 35, 461. 



HUCKLEBERRY. 



This wild berry (Gaylussacia rcsinosa Torr. and Gray) is abundant 
in the northern United States, and furnishes large quantities of fruit for 
the market. 

The fruit is globular in form, blue-black in color, and i cm. or less 
in diameter (Fig. 290, / and //). It is not a true berry, but a ten-celled 
drupe, the hard coverings of the so-called seeds 
being the inner walls of the pericarp cells. The 
epicarp is smooth and the fruit is crowned 
with five-pointed calyx lobes much like those 
of the cranberry. In the center, between these 
lobes, is a small depression, the scar of the 
style. The pits are closely crowded about 
the axis, and as a consequence are wedge- 
shaped (Fig. 290, /// and IV). Under the 
hand lens they have a rough granular appear- 
ance. 

Within the thick endocarp is the seed with 
a thin spermoderm and a bulky endosperm; 
in the axis of the endosperm is an elongated 
embryo. 




Huckleberiv (Gaylus- 
sacia resinosa). 1 fruit seen 
from above, Xi. // cross 
section of fruity Xi. /// 
stone, X8. 7 F cross section 
of stone, X8: End endocarp; 
.S spermoderm; £ endosperm; 
Em embryo. (Winton.) 



HISTOLOGY. 

Pericarp, i. Epicarp (Fig. 291, epi). Surface mounts show the 
cells of this layer to be mucli the same in form and size as those of the 
cranberry epicarp; cross sections, however, show that the cuticle is much 
thinner. 

2. The Hypoderm (hy) is several cell layers thick, and thus furnishes 
a protection against evaporation, which is not necessary in the case of 
the cranberry, owing to its thick cuticle. 



374 



FRUIT. 



3. Mesocarp (mes). Owing to the presence of numerous stone cells 
(st) this layer is strikingly different from the mesocarp of the other com- 

r — epi 

hy 




nies 



Fig. 291. Huckleberry. Cross section of outer portion of the pericarp, epi epicarp; 
/zyhypoderm; wes mesocarp; 5/ stone cells. X 160. (\\'INTON.) 




If E 



Fio. 292. Huckleberry. Cross section of endocarp and seed. End endocarp with large 
isodiametric stone cells and If narrow longitudinally extended fibers; 5 spermoderm; 
N perisperm; E endosperm. X160. (Winton.) 

mon small fruits, but resembles that of the quince and pear, although 
the stone cells are tli inner-walled and the parenchyma cells about them 



HUCKLEBERRY. 



37S 



arc not strongly elongated, and are not arranged in a marked radiating 
pattern. These stone cells are angular or elliptical and vary in diameter 
up to 200 /i. The walls (20 fx or less thick) are pierced with numerous 
small pores. They occur either singly or in groups throughout the 
mcsocarp, and may be readily separated from the soft tissues by 
pressure. 

4. Endocarp (Fig. 292, end). Most of the elements of this hard 
coat are stone cells, about the same size and shape as those of the meso- 
carp (although usually thicker- walled), but in the wall adjoining the 
mesocarp there is a group of narrow sclerenchyma fibers running parallel 













mmm^m, 
















'^' 














Fig. 293. Huckleberry. Spermoderm in surface view. X 300. (\\'iNTON.) 

with the axis of the fruit and similar fibers form the inner layer of the 
coat. 

The pits of the huckleberry crush more readily between the teeth than 
those of the bramble fruits, owing to the larger size of the stone cells and 
the relatively larger cell cavities. 



376 FRUIT. 

Spermoderm (Fig. 292, S). There is but one layer of cells in this 
coat, which may be removed after cutting off the endocarp and studied 
in surface view (Fig. 293). Most of the cells are of fantastic form with 
wa\7 outline, and often reach a length of 200 p.. The walls are beauti- 
fully reticulated, the nearly circular pores being 4 ix in diameter. This 
coat is highly characteristic. The raphe is not conspicuous. 

The Endosperm (Fig. 292, E) and Embryo are much the same in 
structure and form as those of the cranberry. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The characteristic elements of the huckleberry which may be found 
in preserves are the large stone cells of the mesocarp (Fig. 291) and 
endocarp (Fig. 292), and the reticulated cells (Fig. 293) of the spermo- 
derm. Stone cells of the mesocarp are distributed throughout the pre- 
serve, but those of the endocarp are obtained in transverse sections of 
the "seeds." The spermoderm is best seen in surface preparations. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Winton: Beitrage zur Anatomie des Beerenobstes. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm. 
1902, 5, 785. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1902, 288. 

CITRUS FRUITS {Rutacece). 

The fruits of this family are many-seeded berries differing in size 
and flavor but much alike in structure. The following detailed descrip- 
tion of the orange suffices for an understanding of the group. 

ORANGE. 

The orange {Citrus Aurantium L.) is the most valuable citrus fruit 
and may be styled the apple of subtropical regions. It was introduced 
into Europe from the Far East at an early period and thence into America 
in colonial times. Before the days of rapid transportation the fruit was 
unknown in cooler regions except as a greenhouse product; now, how- 
ever, it is on sale throughout the civilized world. 

Two marked varieties are recognized, the common sweet orange 
(var. Sinefisis Engler) and the bitter orange (var. amara L.). 

The fruit is a berry with normally 10 two-seeded loculcs, but as a result 
of cultivation the number of locules varies from 6-12 and the number of 
seeds also varies, being entirely absent in the navel varieties. The outer 



ORANGE. 



O *T ^ 



rind is of a deep orange color and consists of epicarp, liypoderm, and 
outer mesocarp. In this tissue are numerous cavities, often over i mm. in 
diameter, in which is secreted an 
essential oil consisting largely of a ter- 
pene, limonene, with small amounts 
of citral and other substances. The 
pimples on the surface of the fresh 
fruit, becoming depressions on dr}dng, 
mark the position of these cavities. 
The inner rind or inner mesocarp is 
white and of much the same texture 
as blotting-paper. Each of the seg- 
ments of the fruit is covered by a 
membranous skin, the endocarp, 
while the fleshy part is made up of 
club-shaped vesicles springing from 
the inner surface of that portion of 
the endocarp adjoining the rind. 
Each of the seeds consists of two or 
more (maximum 12) embryos in- 
closed within a skin consisting of 
spermoderm, perisperm, and rem- 
nants of endosperm. Owing to the 
mucilaginous outer layer of the spermoderm the seeds are slimy 




Fig. 29 . Orange {Ci'.nis Aurantinm). 
Cross section of outer layers of peel from 
an unripe fruit. Ep epicarp with st stoma ; 
scb oil cavity; g} fibro-vascular bundle; 
kr crystals of calcium oxalate; He lumps 
and crystals of hesperidin. (Tschirch 
and Oesterle.) 



HISTOLOGY. 

Fresh ripe oranges arc usually obtainable at all seasons and in all 
countries. Lacking these, alcoholic material may be used, and with the 
advantage that the tissues are hardened and the crystals of hesperidin are 
better defined. 

Pericarp (Fig. 294). Transverse and tangential sections of the rind 
and surface mounts of the skin covering the segments should be studied, 
also preparations obtained by crushing the isolated vesicles of the fruit 
pulp under a cover-glass. 

I. The Epicarp Cells {Ep) are rather thick-walled, sharply polygonal, 
and from 10-25 /' i^"^ diameter. Division of the mother cells mto daughter 
cells is often evident. Beautifully formed stomata nearly circular in 
outline occur in considerable numbers; the epidermal cells about each 
stoma being more or less concentrically arranged. The color of the 



37- 



FRUIT. 



orange rind is due to chromatophores present not only in the epidermis 
but in the subepidermal layers and also in the vesicles of the pulp. 

2. Hypoderm. This tissue consists of rather small collenchyma 
cells in which ground tissue are the oil cavities {sch). These latter con- 
tain yellow drops of essential oil secreted by the delicate cells lining the 
cavity. In the cells of the ground tissue are numerous needle-shaped 
cr\'stals of a glucoside, hesperidin {He), which, in alcoholic specimens, 
occur in dense spheroidal aggregates. Hesperidin is very abundant in 
the green fruit of all varieties, but diminishes in amount on ripening. 
The amount present at maturity in the sweet orange is, however, much 
greater than in the fruit of the bitter variety, a distinction of some value 
in the examination of marmalades. Cells here and there contain single 
monoclinic crystals of calcium oxalate (kr). 

3. Alesocarp (Fig. 295). The close tissue of the hypoderm passes by 
degrees into a colorless spongy parenchyma which makes up the white 




Fig. 295. Orange. Spongy parenchyma from inner layers of peel. (Berg.) 

tissue forming the larger part of the rind and the middle layers of the 
partition walls through which the segments separate. Owing to the large 
intercellular spaces and the narrow arms of the cells, this tissue presents 
a striking appearance in tangential section, and is also noticeable in 
the debris found in marmalades. 

4. Endocarp. The membranous skin or endocarp inclosing the seg- 
ments consists of greatly elongated, narrow cells transversely arranged. 
These are for the most part thin-Avallcd, but individuals here and there 
have sclerenchymatized walls pierced by oblique pores, making the tissue 
especially noticeable in marmalades. 

5, Vesicles (Fig. 296). Tschirch and Oesterlc fmd that in the 
green fruit two forms of multicellular hairs occur on that portion 



ORANGE. 379 

of the cndocarp adjoining the rind; one, club-shaped with smooth sur- 
face, the other more or less knob-shaped with glandular epidermal cells 
forming an aggregate resembling a bunch of grapes. The former develop 
into the fruit vesicles, while the latter remain small and are not noticfeable 
in the mature fruit. The vesicles are thread-like at the base, broadening 
into the distended and elongated bodies containing the fruit juice. The 
outer layer of these consists of narrow, fiber-like cells, the walls of which, 
although usually thin, occasionally are thickened like the sclerenchyma 
cells of the endocarp. In the inner portion of the vesicle the cells are 




Fig. 296. Orange. Multicellular hairs from inner surface of pericarp of an unripe fruit. 
These develop later into the fruit vesicles. (TscHiRCH.) 

larger and more isodiametric in form. The yellow color is due to 
chromatophores. 

The Spermoderm may be studied in cross sections of the entire seed, 
also in preparations obtained by stripping ofi^ the outer and inner layers. 

I. Outer Epidermis. The sclerenchyma cells are 12-20 /« broad, 350- 
400 /{ long, and 100-225 i" high, the latter dimension not including the 
mucilaginous outer walls which often swell to a thickness of over 150 fx, 
forming a structureless hyaline layer about the seed. Being elongated 
both longitudinally and radially, in surface view they appear like fibers, 
in cross section like palisade cells. The outer ends of the sclerenchv- 
matized portions are of various curious shapes, appearing in cross section 



3 So FRUIT. 

like beaks projecting into the outer mucilaginous layer. The walls are 
narrower than the cavity and are distinctly porous. 

2. The Middle Spermoderm forms a close tissue in the layers adjoining 
tlie epidermis, passing into a spongy parenchyma further inward. 

3. Inner Epidermis. The cells arc elongated and contain a brown 
suljstance. 

Perisperm. Several laj'crs of rather thick-walled cells form a tissue 
resembling the aleurone cells of various oil seeds. 

The Endosperm is cither. not evident at all or only as an obliterated 
structureless membrane. 

Embryo. x\ccording to Tschirch and Oesterle, only one of the several 
embryos is a product of the embryo sac, the others being formed in the 
outer layers of the nuccllus at the end of the ovule without special fertiliza- 
tion. The nucellar embryos are none of them so well developed as the 
one formed in the embryo sac, only two at the most being capable of 
sprouting. The cells contain rounded aleurone grains from 2-10 /i in 
diameter, with numerous globoids. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Orange Marmalade usually contains slices of the rind. Under the 
microscope we note tlie sharply polygonal epidermal cells, also the 
cells of the hypoderm containing numerous orange -colored chromato- 
phores. Needle-shaped crystals of hcsperidin are often found distributed 
in the outer rind, especially if the marmalade was made from the common 
or sweet orange. After soaking for some time in alcohol they are 
evident as spherical aggregates as well as isolated raphides. The oil 
cavities (Fig. 294, scb) are macroscopic objects. 

The spongy parenchyma (Fig. 295) of the inner mesocarp, char- 
acterized by the narrow arms of the cells and the large intercellular 
si)aces, is easily found in the debris, notwithstanding the thinness of the 
walls and the absence of color. 

Other characteristic elements arc the fiber-like cells of the endocarp, 
some of which are sclerenchymatized, and the elongated epidermal cells 
of the vesicles, united into a thread at the base. 

Orange seeds are occasionally found in marmalades. Their shape, 
the presence of more than one embryo and other macroscopic characters 
usually suffice for their identification. Under the microscope the scleren- 
chymatized epidermal cells, both radially and longitudinally elongated, 
are tlie most conspicuous features. In cross section the outer beak- 



ORANGE. LEMON. CITRON. 381 

like extremities extending into the swollen, apparently structureless, 
mucilaginous layer, identify them beyond doubt as seeds of a citrus 
fruit. 

An examination of orange marmalade should include a search under 
the microscope for the pulp of cheaper fruits and vegetables. All the 
common citrus fruits have practically the same structure. Adulteration 
of one with the other is improbable. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Blyth (5); Hanausek, T. F. (16); Hassall 
(19); Planchon et Collin (34); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40). 
IMOELLER, H. J.: Unterscheidung von Cortex Aurantii fructus und Apfelsinenschalen. 

Arch. Ph. og. Ch. 28, 369. 
Strasburger: Das Botanisches Practicum. 

LEMON. 

The lemon {Citrus medica L. var. Limon L.) differs from the orange 
in color, shape, and flavor, but not in microscopic structure. The seed 
seldom contains over three embryos and often only one. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

BiERJViANN : Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Entwickelungsgeschichte von Citrus vulgaris 

Risso und anderen Citrus-Arten. Arch. d. Pharm. 1897, 235, 19. 
Ross: On the structure and development of the lemon. Bot. Gazette, 1890, 15, 262. 

CITRON. 

The citron (Citrus medica L. var. genuina Engler) is much larger 
than the lemon, being often 15-18 cm. longand 8-10 cm. broad. The 
thick rind of the green fruit (2-4 cm.) is candied for use in cakes and 
confections. 

In cross section the cells are nearly circular, forming a loose paren- 
chyma tissue with oil cavities near the outer surface. The epidermal 
cells are the same as those of the orange and lemon. 

Possible substitutes are the rind of the water-melon and other 
cucurbits. 



3^2 FRUIT. 



MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS. 
GRAPE. 

The Old World grape {VUls vinijera L. order Vitacece), a native of 
the f^ast, has been cultivated since time immemorial in Europe, and 
within the past half century has been successfully introduced into Cali- 
fornia. 

There are innumerable varieties differing in size, shape, and color of 
the berries, as well as in their flavor, acidity, and wine value. Aside from 
their use for v/ine production, the fresh berries are among the most de- 
licious of table fruits and the dried berries or raisins are everywhere 
common sweetmeats. 

Xanti currants are the dried seedless berries of a grape (F. vinijera 
var. apyrena L.) grown in the Ionian Islands and neighboring regions. 

Excepting those raised in the Pacific States, American grapes are 
largely derivatives of T'. Lahnisca L., V. cestivalis ^lichx., V. rotundijolia 
Michx., and other native species, although some are hybrids with 
V. vinijera. The northern fox grape (F. Lahrusca) is the parent of the 
Concord, Hartford, and others of the most valuable varieties. Berries 
of the American varieties are more valuable as table fruit and for 
preserves than for wine-making. 

The morphology of both the fruit and the tissues is practically the 
same in all the European and American grapes, excepting the Xanti 
currant and other seedless varieties. The berry has a smooth epicarp 
(often with a bloom), a pulpy mesocarp, but lacks a conspicuous endo- 
carp. Each of the two locules normally contains two seeds, but often 
only one, or in the case of the Xanti currants, none at all. The seeds 
(Fig. 297, A) are pear-shaped, 5-8 mm. long. On the ventral side are two 
longitudinal grooves penetrating into the tissues of the endosperm. Be- 
tween these runs the raphe, extending from the hilum at the narrow end 
of the seed over the apex or broad end to the chalaza situated on the 
dorsal side near the apex, its position being marked by an oval depression. 
The reserve material is largely in the form of horny endosperm. In 
cross section, owing to the grooves on the ventral side, the endosperm 
is mushroom-shaped. The minute embryo situated in the narrow end 
of the seed may be isolated after soaking for some days in i\ per cent, 
alkali. 



GRAPE. 



383 



HISTOLOGY. 

The Pericarp of the grape lacks throughout characteristic tissues, 
thus facilitating the identification of foreign matter with marked character- 
istics. Sections are easiest prepared from fully formed but not fully 
mellowed berries, hardened in alcohol. 

1. Epicarp. The cells are polygonal, 15-40 /t in diameter, without 
any characteristic features. Cross sections show that the outer wall is 
about 7 p. thick with a roughened cuticle. 

2. The Hypoderm Cells are tabular and increase in size from with- 
out inward, passing fmally into the pulp cells of the mesocarp. 

3. The Mesocarp or fruit flesh consists of thin-walled pulp cells and 
fibro-vascular bundles. Howard notes that needle-shaped crystals are 
present, also crystal libers attached to 
the bundles. The vascular elements of 
most of the bundles are entirely spiral 
vessels, but the larger bundles, par- 
ticularly of the European grape, often 
contain in addition pitted elements. 

4. Endocarp. There is no sharply 
differentiated endocarp, the cells being 
thin- walled with the same general char- 
acters as those of the mesocarp. 

Spermoderm (Fig. 297). Seeds of 
any variety of European or American 
grape or of raisins may be studied, as 
observations indicate that all are the 
same in structure. Surface mounts are 
prepared of the outer and inner spermo- 
derm and cross-sections of the entire 
seed. The latter should be bleached 
with Javelle water and stained with 
safranin to bring out the inner layers 
of the spermoderm. 

I. Outer Epidermis (B, ep). Seen 
in surface view, the somewhat elon- 
gated cells are from 20-60 /< broad, 




Fig. 297. Grape {Vitis viuifera). A, I 
seed, ventral side with chalaza, natural 
size; // dorsal side with hilum, X2. 
B cross section of spermoderm show- 
ing ep outer epidermis, pa parcncbyma 
with ra raphides, sc sclerenchyma laver 
and iep inner epidermis. C, D, scleren- 
chyma layer of Malaga grape in surface 
view and cross section. (T. F. Hanau- 

SEK.) 



and have thin colorless walls. Cross sections show that the outer wall is 
thickened and cuticularizcd. 



384 FRUIT. 

2. A Parenchyma (B, pa) of thin-walled cells forms a subepidermal 
coat, which over most of the surface is from 2-6 cell-layers thick, but 
in the grooves is thicker. Many of the cells contain bundles of beauti- 
fully formed raphides, evident both in cross sections and in surface 
mounts. The inner layers are often colored brown. 

3. Stone-cell Layer {B, se; C; D). This exceedingly hard coat 
makes up by far the greater part of the spermoderm. It varies in thick- 
ness from less than 75 /^ to over 500 //. In the grooves it bends sharply 
and extends much deeper into the endosperm than does the parenchyma. 
Here, however, the layer is thin, often less than 75 u, whereas the paren- 
chyma over it is thicker than in other parts of the seed. At first sight 
the dense brown tissue appears to consist of a single layer of enormously 
elongated radially arranged cells forming a palisade layer, but on careful 
examination it is clear that only in the thinner portions is there but a 
single layer, the thicker portions consisting of an aggregate of moderately 
elongated or even isodiametric stone cells arranged end to end in radial 
rows. All of these cells have strongly thickened walls and narrow cavities. 

4. Lattice Cells. This cell-layer is obtained with some difficulty by 
cutting open the seed, picking out the endosperm, and scraping the inner 
surface of the spermoderm with a scalpel. The cells are for tlie most 
part longitudinally elongated, exceedingly narrow (6-10 /x), and have 
numerous small but very distinct spiral reticulations, giving them a lat- 
ticed appearance. In cross section the layer appears like a thin brown 
line of a darker color than either the stone cells or the inner epidermis, 
but on bleaching with Javelle water and staining, the reticulations are 
evident. 

5. Inner Epidermis. Quite as remarkable as the lattice cells and 
mucli easier to Imd, are the cells of this layer. They are polygonal, 
12-35 !■'■ ^^"^ diameter, and have yellow, porous radial walls, which in surface 
view are 4-5 fx broad and very distinctly beaded. 

Perisperm. A hyaline band of obliterated cells is evident in cross 
section. 

Endosperm. The cells are rather small, seldom exceeding 40 /i, 
and have moderately thick but distinct walls. Sections mounted in tur- 
pentine serve for the study of the remarkable aleurone grains which have 
been described by Tschirch, Liidtke, and others. The large, irregularly 
spherical, solitary grains reach 25 // in diameter, and inclose either an 
oxalate rosette 5-10 // in diameter, or a lq,rge globoid. The numerous 
small grains are 3-6 /t in diameter. 



GRAPE. 



385 



The Embryo is so minute and so encased in hard tissue that it is 
diflicuk to study. It has no characters of diagnostic importance. 

DIAGNOSIS. 
Grape Preserves contain either the whole fruit or only the skin and 
fruit flesh, both of which lack distinctive characters. The epidermal 
cells are polygonal, resembling those of the currant, plum, and many 
other products, and the pulp cells are not characteristic. Most of the 
vascular elements of the bundle are spiral vessels. Calcium oxalate 
raphides occur in greater or less abundance. 

The seeds (Fig. 297, A) are recognized by their pear-shaped form, the 
two grooves on the ventral side and the hilum depression on the dorsal 
side near the apex. Cross sections of the endosperm are mushroom- 
shaped. The characteristic tissues of the spermoderm (B) include the 
crystal bearing parenchyma, the brown stone cells, the lattice cells, and 
the yellow, beaded inner epidermis. The soli- 
tary aleuronc grains of the endosperm and the 
oxalate rosettes and globoids are also worthy 
of notice, the rosettes appearing most distinct 
after the proteid matter has been dissolved in 
dilute alkali. 

Raisins are used in cakes, sweetmeats, etc., 
either whole or chopped, with or without the 
seeds. The cellular elements are the same as 
have been noted under preserves. Sugar crystals 
(Fig. 298) often separate in the cells, and are 
seen after mounting in alcohol or some other medium in which they are 
not soluble. 

Xanti Currants contain the same elements as the grape and raisin, 
except that they lack fully developed seeds. Brown abortive seeds are 
always present. 

Grape Pomace and other refuse from the wine-presses have been 
utilized in various ways, both as food for the lower animals and as adul- 
terants. 

Ground Grape Seeds serve as adulterants of coffee and possibly of 
other products. They are easily identified by the characters already 
noted. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See General Bibliography, pp. 671 674: Hanausek, T. F. (10, 16); Villiers et Collin 
(42);Vogl(45). 




Fig. 298. Raisin. Section of 
fruit flesh showing crystals 
of sugar. (VoGL.) 



386 FRUIT. 

Howard : Microscopical Examinations of Fruits and Fruit Products, U. S. Dept. Agr , 

Bur. Chem., Bull. 66,. 103. 
Lampe: Zur Kenntniss des Baues und der Entwickelung saftiger Fruchte. Ztschr. 

Naturw. 1886, 59, 295. 
Schuler: Studien liber den Bau und die Zusammensetzung der Traubenbeere. Die 

Weinlaube, 1880, 34. 

FIG. 

According to Dc Candolle, the fig tree (Ficus Carica L. order Arto- 
carpecz) grew wild in prehistoric times in a subtropical belt extending 
from Syria on the east to the Canaries on the west. It was cultivated 
in very early times in Egypt, Palestine, Greece, and Rome, and at later 
periods was introduced into France, Spain, Persia, India, and finally, 
in the eighth century, into China. Its culture in America dates from 
Colonial times, and is now an important industry in California and some 
of the southern states. 

The numerous minute flowers are borne on the inner surface of a 
fleshy pear-shaped receptacle, communication with the outer air being 
through an opening or eye in the broad end. They are of four kinds: 
I. Staminate flowers with five-parted perianth and four stamens, pro- 
duced in considerable numbers only in the wild fig (caprifig, goal fig^ 
Latin, caprijicus). 2. Fertile pistillate flowers, also knovv'n as seed flowers, 
with three- to five-parted perianth and a long style. The inflorescence 
of the Smyrna fig and other cultivated sorts is largely or entirely of these 
flowers, caprification (fertihzation) being effected only by the poflen of 
the wild fig, which is carried to the fertile flowers by a wasp breeding in 
the latter variety, hence the time-honored practice of tying a flowering 
branch of a caprifig to the cultivated tree during the flowering season. 
3. Gall flowers, that is abortive pistillate flowers which do not develop 
seeds, but serve as a breeding place for the wasp, are instrumental in eft'ect- 
ing caprification. They are found chiefly in the wild fig, and have short 
styles of such a length that the wasp is able to introduce its eggs into 
the ovary bv means of its ovipositor. 4. Abortive flowers useless alike for 
the reproduction of the fig or of the wasp. In English they are known 
as mule flowers, and are the only ones present in numerous varieties, 
w^ithout perfect seeds. 

Two or even three crops of figs are produced by some varieties. The 
first crop (" Fichigrossi," " fiori,^^ or "orni" figs) is borne early in the 
spring on the old wood. Later in the season " jornili " figs are produced 



FIG. 



387 



in the axils of the leaves on the lower portions of the new shoots, and 
''craliri" figs on the upper portion. 

The ripe fig is not a true fruit but an aggregate of small fruits or drupe- 
lets in a fleshy receptacle. In this respect it is like a strawberry, but 
the fruitlcts are borne on slender stems over the inner surface, not sessile 
in depressions over the outer surface of the receptacle. The numerous 
yellow, pear-shaped "seeds," about 2 mm. long, found in ripe ligs, whether 
fresh or dried, are the seeds proper invested by the hard inner pericarp 
The fruit, strictly speaking, is a drupe. 

HISTOLOGY. 

If fresh figs are not obtainable, the preserved fruit or even dried figs, 
soaked up in water, will answer for laboratory work. 

Receptacle. The fleshy receptacle forms the larger part of the fig. 

1. The Epidermal Cells (Fig. 299) are small, usually less than 20 /x 
in diameter, and have thick walls. Here and there they form rosettes, 
in the center of which are stout hairs (h) 
with globular bases up to 20 /i in diam- 
eter. Usually the hairs arc short, some- 
times scarcely twice as long as broad, but 
occasionally they reach a length of 300 /x. 
In the dried fruit they are often detached, 
although the scars with rosettes of cells 
about them are always evident. 

2. Hypoderm. Several layers of small 
cells with thick walls underlie the epider- 
mis. They contain rosettes of calcium 
oxalate. 

3. Fruit Flesh (Fig. 300). Proceeding 
inward, the cells increase in size but 
diminish in wall thickness, the bulk of the 
tissues consisting of loosely arranged, irreg- 
ular cells usually about 100 n in diameter. 
Their contents is largely sugar, which in the dried fruit is in crystalline 
form. Branching and anastomosing latex cells {m) ramify in great num- 
bers through the outer layers of the fruit flesh, also sparingly through 
the inner layers. They are remarkable not only for their numbers but 
their size, reaching 50 /( in breadth. The walls are delicate but distinct. 
Numerous minute granules which are colored intensely yellow by iodine 




Fig. 299. ^{^{FicusCarica). Epi- 
carp in surface view, h hairs and 
hair scars. Xi6o. (MOELLER.) 



388 



FRUIT. 



solution are suspended in the milky contents. On warming, the latex 
coagulates, forming large drops. The fibro-vascular bundles occurring 
in the middle layer have small spiral or reticulated vessels usually only 
15 /z broad, seldom over 25 /x. 

4. The Inner Epidermis is of delicate -walled cells, which are not 




K-—. 



Fig. 300. Fig. Longitudinal section of fruit flesh showing p parenchyma, K crystals, m 
latex tubes and g vessels. Xi6o. (Moeller.) 

easily found in the ripe fruit. Hairs occur on this as well as on the 
outer epidermis. 

Pericarp (Fig. 301). The inner surface of the receptacle is thickly 
beset with fruitlcts inclosed by the perianth and borne on delicate stems. 
The perianth and stems are of thin-walled tissue of no special interest. 

1. The Epicarp Cells are thin- walled, more or less radially elongated. 

2. The Mesocarp of two or more layers is also of thin-walled, incon- 
spicuous elements. Tschircli and Oesterlc have shown that in removing 
the so-called seeds (inner pericarp and seeds proper) the tissues separate 
through this layer, part of the cells adliering to the outer layers, part 
to the inner. 

3. Outer Sclerenchyma {sc). This consists of exceedingly small stone 
cells 15 ^ in diameter in a single layer. 

4. The Endocarp (st) or inner sclerenchyma is composed of one or 
more layers of rounded angular stone cells about 50 jj. in diameter. They 



FIG. 



389 



have narrow lumen and thick walls with distinct rings and numerous 
branching pores. They are readily distinguished from the smaller cells 
of the outer sclerenchyma. 

Spermoderm (Fig. 302). The seed, which as a rule does not com- 
pletely hll the locule, is enveloped by a brown spermoderm, consisting of 
two or more layers of thin-walled, polygonal, isodiamctric or somewhat 
elongated, often compressed cells (a, i). 

The Endosperm (Fig. 302, E) makes up about half the bulk of the 




Fig. 301. Fig. Elements of peri- 
carp (shell of nutlet) in surface 
view, sc outer sclerenchyma layer; 
st stone cells of endocarp. X i6o. 

(MOELLER.) 



Fig. 302. Fig. Elements of seed in surface view. 
Spermoderm consists of a colorless outer epidermis 
and i brown inner layers; £ endosperm; e embryo. 

X160. (MOELLER.) 



seed. The cells are thick- walled, polygonal, about 50 /i in diameter, 
and contoin proteid matter and fat. 

The Embryo CFig. 302, e) is curved so that cotyledons and radicle 
almost meet. Small thin-walled cells without marked characters make 
up the tissues. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Preserves. Wliole figs preserved in syrup or cordial are easily iden- 
tified by their form, taste and the numerous "seeds." If, however, they 
are cooked to a pulp the microscope should be brought into service. 
As the fig is one of the cheapest fruits in southern Europe, it, like the 
apple in America, is used as an adulterant of preserves purporting to 
be made from more valuable fruits. Marpmann has found tissues and 
seeds of the fig in numerous samples of strawberry, raspberry, and currant 
preserves. 

Fig Coffee, consisting of the dried, roasted, and ground figs, is a popular 
coffee substitute in various parts of Europe. It is adulterated with 
cereal products, legumes, chicory, and even, so it is staled, with foreign 



39° FRUIT. 

seeds; on the other hand, it may itself serve as an adulterant of genuine 
coffee. 

The microscopic identification of figs, whether in preserves or fig 
coffee, requires a knowledge of the tissues of both the receptacle and 
seed. The important elements are the outer epidermis of the recep- 
tacle with hairs (Fig. 299), the oxalate crystals of the hypoderm, the 
latex tubes (Fig. 300, m), often 30-50 fi broad (in chicory usually less 
than 10 //), and finally the "seeds" (drupelets). The macroscopic appear- 
ance of the latter, also the peculiar manner in which they crush between 
the teeth, usually suffices for their identification, but in doubtful cases 
should be supplemented by an examination of surface preparations (Figs. 
301 and 302) and cross sections. The strawberry and fig nutlets are 
remarkably similar in macroscopic appearance, and a careful microscopic 
examination may be necessary in some cases to distinguish them. The 
crystal layer of the pericarp and the reticulated epidermis of the spermo- 
derm are characteristic tissues of the strawberr)^ nutlet, with no counter- 
parts in the fig. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hanausek, T. F. (10, 16); Mace (26); 
Moeller (29); Planchon et Collin (34); Schimper (37); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Vil- 
liers et Collin (42); Vogl (43, 45). 
Marpmann: Beitrage zur mikroskopischen Untersuchung der Fruchtmarmeladen. 

Ztschr. angew. Mikr. 1896, 2, 97. 
Nevinny: Zur Verfalschung des Feigenkaffees. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1887, 1, 85. 



DATE. 

The date palm (Phoenix dactylijera L. order Palmce) flourished in 
the gardens of the East long before the Christian era. At the present 
time it is cultivated in all the countries bordering on the Mediterranean, 
particularly in North Africa and Palestine, and also in Arabia and 
Persia, the fruit being the chief article of diet in many regions. The 
Arabs of the desert depend on this tree for both food and shelter, and 
regard it with special veneration. 

Dates are of many varieties, differing in size (4-8 cm.), form, and 
color. 

The mesocarp is about i cm. thick and contains a high percentage 
of sugar. A hard cndocarp like that of the cocoanut and oil palm is 
lacking; on the other hand, the seed (2-3 cm. long and 0.5 cm. broad) 



DATE. 



391 



consists almost entirely of hard endosperm resembling that of the ivory- 
nut. On the dorsal side of the seed midway between the two ends, a 
rounded cavity contains the minute germ, while a groove extends the 
entire length of the ventral side. The spermoderm forms a thin brownish 
coat about the seed or stone. 



HISTOLOGY. 

Pericarp. Lacking fresh or alcoholic specimens, the dried dates of 
commerce may be soaked in water and finally hardened in alcohol. As 
noted by Braun, cross sections show five layers. 

1. The Epidermal Cells are of isodiametric form (10-30 /<) and color- 
less, 

2. The Hypoderm consists of two or more layers of cells (20-50 ,u), 
with yellow or brown contents. 

3. Stone Cells, mostly radially elongated, form a layer of variable 
thickness. 

4. The Mesocarp Cells, proceeding from without inward, pass from 
tangentially elongated forms first into isodiametric and finally into radi- 
ally elongated forms. 

5. An Endocarp of colorless, longitudinally elongated, collapsed ele- 
ments forms a white silky-fibrous coat readily sep- 
arable from the stone. 

Spermoderm. Stones from dried dates are easily 
cut with a strong razor. 

1. The Epidermis (Fig. 303) is a single layer 
of narrow, elongated porous sclerenchyma elements, 
ranging in length up to 100 fx or more. On the 
middle of the dorsal side their longer diameters run 
parallel with the axis of the stone, but in other 
parts they are often transversely or diagonally ar- 
ranged. They also occur side by side in groups, 
recalling the endocarp of the currant. 

2. The Middle Layer (Fig. 304, g). All the 
cells are tangentially elongated. Directly under the 
epidermis, thick-walled porous elements occur here 
and there, but in the remaining two or more layers the cells are 
thin-walled, with side walls in interrupted contact, resembling the tube 
cells of cereals. These tube cells are often 20-30 /« wide and have 
brown contents. As a rule the outermost cells are extended in the same 




Fig. 303. Date {Phoenix 
dactylifera). Epider- 
mis of spermoderm 
(outer layer of stone) in 
Surface view. Xi6o. 
(MOELLER.) 



392 



FRUIT. 



direction as the epidermal cells; those in the inner layer however are 
often at an angle. 

3. Inner Layers. One or two layers adjoining the endosperm are 
distinguished from the remainder, both in cross section and surface 
view, by their smaller dimensions and darker color. 

Endosperm (Fig. 305). The reserve material of the stone is largely 
in the form of thickened cell-wall, the structure of which closely resembles 
that of the ivory-nut. Although varying greatly in thickness, the double 
walls are, on the average, 15 /x and seldom exceed 30 p.. Conspicuous 
pores, broadest towards the middle lamella, add to the striking appear- 
ance of these cells. In the outer layers they are radially elongated, in 
the heart, isodiametric. Oil is the only visible cell-contents. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The Fruit Flesh enters into many pastries, sweetmeats, and candies. 

The epidermis, hypoderm, and stone cells are readily found, but are 
not very characteristic. 

Date Stones are ground as a substitute or adulterant for coffee. h\- 
though both seeds have reserve material largely in the form of cellulose, 




Fig. 304. Date Stone. Parenchyma 
of spermoderm and g tube cells 
in surface view. Xi6o. (Moeller.) 




Fig. 305. Date Stone. Endo- 
sperm with thickened cell walls. 
X160. (Moeller.) 



it is needless to say that date stones lack the valuable constituents of 
coffee. 

Sections should be cut for the identification of this material. The 
thick walls (Fig. 305) with distinct pores are readily distinguished from 
the knotty thickened walls of coffee. The double walls seldom or never 



DATE. BANANA. 



393 



exceed 30 {I in thickness, whereas in the ivory-nut they average 35 fi. 
Tissues of the spermoderm (Figs. 303 and 304) are radically unlike any 
in coffee, and quite different from those of the ivor}'-nut. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hanausek, T. F. (10, 16); ]Mace (26); 
Moeller (29); Planchon et Collin (34); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (45). 
Braun : Ueber das Vorkommen von Spharokrystallen aus Traubenzucker in den ver- 

schiedenen Drogen. Ztschr. allg. osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1878, 16, 337. 
Hanausek, T. F.: Ueber die Anatomic der Dattelkerne. Chem. Ztg. 18S6, 10, 701. 
Sachs: Zur Keimungsgeschichte der Dattel. Bot. Zeit. 1862. 

Zabuckie: Notes on the Structure of the Fruit Stone of the Date; Phcenix dactylijcm 
L. Jour. N. Y. Micr. Soc. 1892, S, 107. 

BANANA. 

The banana tree (Musa sapientum Ij. order Musacea) is a native 
of the Old World, but is very extensively cultivated in tropical x\merica. 
It is said to produce more food in a given area than any other plant. 
Throughout the tropics the banana is a staple article of diet in many 
regions, Ixnng of more importance than all other foods taken together. 
It is eaten cither raw or cooked. Bunches of bananas are also shipped 
green in enormous quantities to Europe and the United States, where 
they are ripened in well-ventilated lofts. 

The elongated berry is cither red or yellow, more or less angular, and 
varies in length from less than 10 to over 20 cm. It separates readily into 
a tough rind and a pulpy fruit flesh turning brown on exposure, the 
latter showing in cross section three indistinct locules with minute brown 
abortive seeds. The plantain {M. sapientum var. paradlsiaca Hort.) 
has a larger fruit, which, like some varieties of the banana, is picked 
green and eaten cooked. 

HISTOLOGY. 

A green banana will be found much easier to section than one fully 
ripe. Transverse, longitudinal, and tangential sections should be pre- 
pared, also mounts of the isolated fibers and abortive seeds. 

Pericarp. The rind, or so-called peel, containing most of the bundles, 
is easily stripped from the fruit pulp, the separation being through the 
delicate tissues of the outer mesocarp. 

I. The Epicarp Cells are small, j^olygonal, and thick- walled. Tan- 
gentiai sections show an indistinctly striated cuticle. 



394 FliUIT. 

2. Hypoderm. The remaining layers of the peel may be arbitrarily 
designated either hypoderm or outer mesocarp. The cells of the outer 
layers of ground tissue are small, rather thick-walled, and closely ar- 
ranged; but proceeding inward, the cells increase in size, the walls de- 
crease in thickness, and the arrangement becomes more loose and spongy. 
The numerous bundles running through this ground tissue consist in 
the outer layers entirely of bast fibers, in the inner layers of the usual 
fibro-vascular elements. Especially noticeable are the extraordinary size 
of the spiral vessels (often 50 [i in diameter) and their loosely wound 
spirals. Accompanying each bundle are one or more chains of very 
conspicuous brown- walled, rounded, giant cells about 250 /z broad, 
resembling the oil-ducts of umbelliferous seeds. 

3. Mesocarp. The fruit flesh is a mass of rounded pulp cells which, 
in the outer layers, are nearly isodiametric, but in the inner layers are 
radially greatly elongated and readily separate as chains. Fibro-vas- 
cular bundles like those already described occur sparingly in the outer 
and also in the inner layers. The curiously shaped starch grains (Fig. 
306) are much elongated, mostly 20-40 /?, occasionally 75 /t long, and 




Fig. 306. Banana Starch. X300. (Moeller.) 

have an excentric hilum, mostly in the broader end, and very distinct rings. 
Among the grains are fusiform, cigar-shaped, ovoid, rod-shaped, and 
other striking forms. Tschirch and Oesterle lay particular stress on the 
"sickle-shaped" forms, consisting of two curved grains united end to 
end. The fleshy partitions contain numerous bundles accompanied by 
chains of brown giant cells like those in the hypoderm. E. Munroe 
Bailey has shown that the starch largely disappears during ripening 

4. Endocarp. The inner layer of the pericarp is made up of thin- 
walled cells mostly radially elongated. 

The Seeds arc abortive, of a brown color, and lack distinctive elements. 



BANANA. PINEAPPLE. 395 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Banana Flour. The ground dried pulp of the green fruit consists 
largely of starch and cellular debris. Not only the starch grains (Fig. 306), 
but also the broad, loosely wound spiral vessels and the chains of giant 
cells are characteristic. 

Guiana Arrowroot or Banana Starch is a commercial product of some 
importance. The starch grains are elongated, curiously shaped, and 
have distinct rings. The hilum is usually in the broader end, whereas 
in the somewhat similar grains of curcuma and yam the hilum is in the 
narrow end. 

PINEAPPLE. 

The pineapple, one of the most dehcious of tropical fruits, is the 
product of a herbaceous, endogenous plant {Ananassa sativa Schult. f., 
order Bromeliacece), a native of the West Indies and other regions of 
the New World. Like oranges and bananas, pineapples are now shipped 
to cooler regions- in large quantities, but in Europe have not entirely 
supplanted the greenhouse product, which is said to have a finer flavor. 

The fruit consists of numerous fleshy berries, each with a single fleshy 
bract, united with an axis, forming a conical composite fruit shaped 
like a pine cone, hence the name pineapple. Surmounting the fruit is 
a tuft of sword-shaped saw-toothed leaves. The tapering, more or less 
appresscd extremities of the bracts are toothed. The chartaceous, per- 
sistent perianth lobes form a close, dome-like structure covering a cavity 
in which are the remains of the styles and stamens. 

R. H. Chittenden has found that the pineapple contains an enzyme, 
"bromelin, " possessing in a remarkable degree the power of digesting 
proteid substances. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The edible part of the pineapple is the fruit flesh freed from the harsh 
outer envelope and also from the fibrous core. As, however, the removal 
of these parts is not always complete, a knowledge of their histology is 
desirable. 

The Bracts consist of hard outer and inner layers, with softer tissues 
between. 

I. The Outer Epidermal Cells are small with wavy outline. The 
secondary walls are greatly thickened except for a spherical cavity 



396 



FRUIT. 



scarcely one-third the diameter of the cell, which is entirely filled by a 
silicious body. 

2. Outer Hypoderm. One or more layers of very thick, sclercnchy- 
matized, porous-walled cells underlie the epidermis. Cross sections show 
that these cells are thicker than broad, and tangential sections, that tliey 
are somewhat elongated. 

3. Mesophyl. The hypodermal cells pass into a thin-walled but por- 
ous mesophyl, which, in the fleshy portions, is tlie same as the fruit flesh. 

4. Inner Hypoderm. Beneath the inner epidermis is a second layer 
of sclerenchyma elements. 

5. Inner Epidermis. This characteristic layer is composed of thin- 
walled, nearly square cells with sharply zigzag outline. They resemble 

somewhat the outer epidermal cells, but lack the 
silicious contents. 

Pericarp. No sharp distinction can be 
drawn between pericarp, perianth tube, and 
fleshy portion of bract, as they all unite to form 
the fruit flesh. 

1. An Epicarp is present only in the disc sur- 
rounding the style. The cells are much like 
those of the hypoderm of the bracts, but are 
more distinctly porous and consequently in tan- 
gential section appear beautifully beaded. 

2. Mesocarp. The cells of the fruit flesh are 
mostly isodiametric, and although thin-walled, 
are often distinctly porous. Beautiful raphides 
(Fig. 307), often over 100 p. long, occur in large 
numbers Ijoth singly and in bundles. The 
fibro- vascular bundles consist in large part of 

Fig. 307. Pineapple (Ana- i^g^g^ fibers with broad lumen and round pores, 

nassa saliva). Cross sec- . '■ 

tion of fruit flesh showing and broad spiral vessels often 25 fx in diameter. 

raphides. X i6c. (Winton.) r? j a t't. • j. .L.^ i 

^ 3. hndocarp. The mner two or three layers 

are of tangentially elongated cells, those in the innermost layer, or endo- 
carp proper, being very narrow, usually only 10-20 n broad. The walls 
are thin throughout. 




DIAGNOSIS. 



In preserves the chief elements are the cells of the parenchymatous 
fruit flesh, containing large raphides (Fig. 307), and the fibro-vascular 



PINEAPPLE. 397 

bundles, consisting chiefly of bast fibers with broad lumen and round pores, 
also large spiral vessels. Occasionally one finds fragments of the bracts and 
other outer parts, of which the characteristic elements are: first, the small, 
square epidermal cells witli zigzag walls and, in the case of the outer 
epidermis, with silicious contents; and second, the thick- walled, some- 
what elongated, sclerenchyma elements. 



PART VII. 

VEGETABLES 



VEGETABLES. 

A number of the common vegetables are seeds and fruits picked while 
immature. The mature forms of some of these are described with the 
legumes (peas, bean, Lima bean), cereals (green corn), and spices 
(peppers) but identification of the vegetables by these descriptions is 
often difficult owing to the undeveloped condition of the tissues and 
starch grains. 

The vegetables here described include most of the fruits used 
minced or pulped in commercial products, such as pickles and catsups; 
the common roots and tubers used for culinary purposes, cattle feeding, 
starch manufacture and adulterating food products; and certain edible 
fungi. 

CUCURBIT FRUITS {Cucurbitacecs)} 

The fleshy mesocarp of these fruits contains curious branching latex 
tubes. Thin-walled stomata occur in great numbers on the epicarp. 
The numerous flattened seeds are borne within the three large locules 
on three double-central placentae, but as these placentae extend to the 
outer wall before branching, thus forming false partitions, the seeds 
appear to be borne on parietal placentae. 

Several characteristic tissues are found in the seed, of which the thin- 
walled, ribbed palisade cells of the epidermis (Figs. 309 and 310, ep) and 
the sclerenchyma cells of the third layer {scl) are much alike in all the 
important economic species. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohnrier (6); Collin (8); Hanausek, T. F. 
(17); Harz(i8); Planchon et Collin (34); Villiers et Collin (42). 
Braemer: De la localisation des principes actifs des Cucurbitacees. Compt. rend. 

1893, 117, 753- 
Carles: Nouveau cas de fraude de conserves alimentaires. Journ. pharm. chim. 1885, 

11, 547- 

' The descriptions of cucurbit fruits are by Miss Kate G. Barber. 

* 401 



40 2 



VEGETABLES. 



Fickel: Anatomic u. Entwickelungsgesch. der Samenschalen einiger Cucurbitaceen. 
Bot. Ztg. 1876, 34, 737. 

Fischer: Ueber das Siebrohren System der Cucurbitaceen. Leipzig, 1884. 

Godfrin: Etude histologique sur les tegument seminaux des Angiospermes. Soc. 
d. Sci. d. Nancy, 1880, 109. 

Hartwich: Semen Cucurbitae. Arch, pharm. 1885. 

V. Hohnel: Morpholog. Untersuchungungen iiber die Samenschale der Cucurbi- 
taceen. Sitzungsber. Wiener Akad. 1876, 73. 

Kosutany: Die Kiirbiskernkuchen. Landw. Vers.-Stat. 1893, 43, 264. 



PUMPKIN. 

Wittmack, in his investigation of prehistoric remains in Peru, has 
secured evidence that the pumpkin (Cucurbita Pepo L.) is an American 
plant and not, as formerly believed, a native of the Old World. This 
belief is further substantiated by the statements of early explorers that 
the pumpkin was grown in maize fields by the aborigines just as is 
practiced to-day by American farmers. 

The pumpkin is the largest of all cultivated fruits, in extreme cases 
reaching the prodigious weight of nearly 100 kilos. It is apple-shaped, 




Fig. 308. Pumpkin (Cucurbita Pepo). Epicarp in surface view. X300. (Barber.) 

smooth, and of an orange or green-orange color. The fleshy rind, con- 
sisting of receptacle and pericarp, is several centimeters thick, and is 
highly esteemed in America for making pies as well as for feeding. About 
the seeds is a tangle of gelatinous, mesocarp fibers, such as occur in 
the melon and some other cucurbitaceous plants. Pumpkin seeds are 
1.5-2.5 cm. long, elliptical, strongly flattened, and have a narrow 
border on both sides. The embryo consists of two flattened cotyle- 
dons and a minute radicle. 



PUMPKIN. 



403 



HISTOLOGY. 

Receptacle and Pericarp, i. The Epicarp Cells (Fig. 308) arc pris- 
matic, forming a palisade layer upward of 50 ii thick. In surface view 




Fig. 309. Pumpkin. Seed in cross section. 5 spermoderm consists of ep ribbed palisade 
cells of epidermis containing am starch grains, hy pitted subepidermal cells, scl scleren- 
chyma layer, m' pitted mesocarp cells, m'^ reticulated spongy parenchyma, p^ parenchyma, 
^^ spongy parenchyma, and /»^ inner epidermis; N perisperm; £ endosperm consisting 
of aleurone cells; C cotyledon containing al aleurone grains. Xi6o. (Barber.) 

they are for the most part polygonal and do not exceed 25 /< in diameter, 
but about the stomata they are somewhat elongated and curved. Their 
walls are bright yellow, whereas those of the stomata are colorless. 



404 



VEGET/IBLES. 



2. Hypoderm. Exceedingly small cells in several layers form the 
hypoderm. 

3. Mesocarp. The noteworthy elements of the fruit flesh are the 
strongly developed spiral vessels of the fibro-vascular bundles, often 60 ^ 
broad, some with single strands and turns wide apart, others with 2-4 
strands and turns close together; also, accompanying the bundles, branch- 
ing and anastomosing latex tubes. The ground tissue is of large, thin- 
walled, rounded elements. 

4. Endocarp. This is evident on the seeds as a thin membrane. 
Spermoderm (Figs. 309 and 310). Either fresh or dried seeds may 




Fig. 310. Pumpkin. Seed elements in surface view, ep ribbed palisade cells of epider- 
mis; ep^ branching rib from epidermal cell; hy pitted subepidermal cells; scl scleren- 
chyma layer; w' pitted mesocarp cells; w^ reticulated spongy parenchyma; />' paren- 
chyma; /^^ spongy parenchyma; p^ inner epidermis of spermoderm; N perisperm; 
£ endosperm. Xi6o. (Barber.) 

be used for making preparations, which should include transverse and 
tangential sections. 

1. The Palisade Epidermis {ep) is remarkable not only for the great 
height of the cells (often over 200 n), but also for the longitudinal ribs 
with branches at the outer ends which strengthen the radial walls. In 
cross section these might easily be mistaken for the walls themselves, 
but in tangential section they are seen to be circular rods on a thin cell- 
wall. These cells contain small starch grains {am). 

2. Pitted Subepidermal Cells {hy). The small polygonal cells with 
numerous minute pores are arranged in 3-6 cell-layers. 



PUMPKIN. 405 

3. Sclerenchyma (scl). Cross sections of the cells are often oval, 
showing thick walls pierced by numerous pores. In surface view the 
cells are elongated with wavy outline, and are arranged end to end in 
rows. 

4. Pitied Mesocarp Cells {m^). These resemble the cells of the sub- 
epidermal coat, but form only one distinct layer. 

5. Reticulated Spongy Parenchyma (m~). One or more layers of curi- 
ously reticulated cells with large intercellular spaces form the most 
remarkable tissue of the seed. Their appearance is alike striking in 
cross section and surface view and reminds one of a prickly pear cactus. 

6. Parenchyma (p^). The cells are large, of the usual type. 

7. Spongy Parenchyma (p^). The parenchyma passes by degrees 
into a remarkable spongy tissue with a large ring evident, in surface 
view, in the center of nearly every cell. 

8. The Inner Epidermis (p^). The cells resemble those of the pro- 
ceeding layer but are smaller. The protuberance in the center of each 
cell forming the ring seen in surface view is evident in cross section. 

Perisperm (N). This consists of a few layers of thin- walled cells 
more or less compressed. 

Endosperm (E). A single layer of well-defined aleurone cells forms 
the endosperm. 

Embryo (C). In sections examined in turpentine, we find numerous 
small aleurone grains 3-6 /x in diameter. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Pumpkin Pulp is not only used for making pies, but also for adulterat- 
ing tomato catsup, jams, and other fruit products. 

The microscopic elements of the pulp of chief value in diagnosis, 
including the broad vessels, the latex tubes, and the epicarp (Fig. 
308) with stomata, are largely although usually not entirely removed by 
straining. 

Pumpkin-seed Cake is obtained in limited amount as a by-product 
in the manufacture of pumpkin-seed oil. The characteristic tissues of 
the spermoderm (Fig. 310) include the ribbed palisade epidermis (ep), 
the pitted parenchyma of the second layer (hy), the sclerenchyma cells 
with wavy outline (scl), and the reticulated spongy parenchyma (m^). 



4o6 VEGETABLES. 



SQUASH. 



The fruit of numerous varieties of the winter squash {Cucurbita maxima 
Duch.) is put to the same uses as the pumpkin. 

Squashes of the different varieties are widely different in macroscopic 
characters, and according to Harz are somewhat different in histological 
structure. In the main, however, their structure corresponds closely with 
that of the pumpkin. 

CUCUMBER. 

The cucumber or gherkin {Cucumis sativus L.) is a native of the 
East Indies, whence in ancient times its culture spread over various 
parts of Asia and Europe. 

The succulent fruit picked green is prized not only as a fresh vege- 
table eaten either raw or cooked, but also for pickling. 

Although variable in shape, it is usually elongated, in section rounded 
triangular, and has numerous warts on the surface, each capped by a 
short, blunt spine, which readily becomes detached on handling. The 
fleshy pericarp is green in the outer layers, but white further inward. 
Numerous flattened seeds are embedded in a gelatinous substance within 
the three locules. The cream-colored seeds are seldom over 2 mm. thick 
even when fully ripe, and are not, as in the case of the pumpkin seed, 
provided with a distinct border. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Cucumbers are often picked for pickling at such an early stage in 
their development that they do not show very marked differentiation 
of the tissues. When, however, they reach a diameter of 3 cm. or more, 
the structure both of the pericarp and seed is sufficiently characteristic 
to permit their identification with some degree of certainty. 

Pericarp. The following description applies to the half -grown fruit: 

1. The Epicarp Cells are prismatic with thin walls. They reach 
the height of 75 ;< or more and vary from 7-20 /i in breadth. They do 
not contain chlorophyl grains. 

2. Hypoderm. Several layers of small, rounded, loosely arranged 
cells containing numerous chlorophyl grains form the subepidermal tis- 
sues, to which the fruit owes its green color. 

3. The Mesocarp, or more correctly the fruit flesh, is a colorless mass 
of loose parenchyma, through which run the fibro-vascular bundles. 



CUCUMBER. MUSKMELON. 4° 7 

The Spennodenn is best studied in seeds taken directly from a ripe 
cucumber, as those obtained from a seedsman often lack the outer 
epidermis. 

1. The Palisade Epidermis is thickened by rods, which differ from 
those of the pumpkin in that they are sclerenchymatized and do not 
branch at the end. 

2. Pitted Cells. These cells have thick porous walls and are arranged 
end to end in rows forming a single cell-layer. Numerous small inter- 
cellular spaces are evident in surface view. 

3. The Sclerenchyma is practically the same as in the pumpkin. In 
surface view this layer is ver\^ striking even in green cucumbers, owing 
to the wavy, sclerenchymatized cell-walls. It reminds us of the epidermis 
of oat chaff, but of course only elongated cells are present. 

Spongy Parenchyma. This layer is made up of star-shaped cells 
with thin walls. 

The Perisperm, Endosperm, and Embryo lack distinctive features. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Not only whole cucumbers but quite small pieces are recognized by 
the warts on the surface, the thin elliptical seeds, and other macroscopic 
characters. 

The microscopic elements of value in diagnosis are the palisade 
epidermal layers of both the fruit and the seed, and the sclerenchyma 
layer of the seed. 

MUSKMELON. 

The muskmclon (Cuoumis Melo L.) is a native of southern Asia and 
tropical Africa. 

The hollow fruit is spherical or slightly elongated with 8-12 narrow- 
longitudinal grooves. The surface is yellow-green with brown reticula- 
tions. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Pericarp (Fig. 311). i. Epicarp. The cells are prismatic, ver}' thick- 
walled with a thick cuticle. The reticulations are of cork tissues which 
break through the epicarp similar to lenticels. In the grooves the epi- 
dermal cells have thinner walls and are accompanied by stomata and 
multicellular hairs. 

2. Hypoderm. Moderately thick- walled pitted cells form this layer. 

3. Mesocarp. Bundles and latex tubes are scattered through a mass 
of loose parenchyma. 



4o8 



VEGET/tBLES. 



Spermoderm. i. The Palisade Epidermis is strengthened by rods 
without evident branches. 

2. Pitted Cells with thickened walls form several layers. 

3. Sclerenchyma. The cells are large with thick sinuous walls, and 
resemble those of the cucumber. 

4. Spongy Parenchyma. This consists of 4-5 layers of slightly 




Fig. 311. Muskmelon (Cucumis Melo). Cross section of rind. (Moellee.) 

thickened porous cells intermediate in characters between the corre- 
sponding cells of the pumpkin and the cucumber. 

Perisperm, Endosperm, and Embryo are like those of the cucumber. 



WATERHELON. 

The watermelon {Citrullus vulgaris Schrad.) comes to us from Africa, 
where it is eaten by the natives and the larger animals. 

The large fruit is ellipsoidal with a dark-green surface, often mottled 
with light green. The rind or outer portion of the fruit flesh is white 



IVATERMELON. 



409 



or light green, of firm texture; the inner portion is red, pink or yellow 
of looser texture, with numerous bundle fibers. Embedded in the inner 
pericarp are the black or light-brown, flat, lustrous seeds. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Pericarp, i. The Epicarp consists of prismatic cells with thickened 
outer and radial walls. 

2. Hypoderm. This is made up of 10-12 layers of indistmctly pitted 
cells. 

3. Stone Cells in one or more layers form a distinct zone in the mature 




Fig. 312. Watermelon {Citrullus vulgaris). Cross section of outer layer of spermoderm 
showing the palisade epidermis, the sclerenchyma cells and the porous spongy paren- 
chyma. (MOELLER.) 

fruit. During the earlier stages of development these stone cells occur 
in groups, but later the groups become almost continuous. 

4. Mesocarp. This tissue consists of parenchyma cells with moder- 



41 o l^EGETABLES. 

atcly thick, porous walls and intercellular spaces; among which ramify 
bundles and latex tubes. 

Spennoderm (Fig. 312). The structure is much the same as in the 
cucumber, except that the rods of the palisade epidermis are smaller 
and more numerous, and the subepidermal stone cells form several layers 
with scarcely any intercellular spaces. 

Perisperm, Endosperm, and Embryo are similar to the corresponding 
layers of the cucumber and the muskmelon. 



SOLANACEOUS FRUITS {Solanacecs). 

This family yields a number of important products, of which the 
potato (p. 414) is a tuber, the eggplant and tomato are fleshy fruits, and the 
garden peppers are dry fruits. Cayenne pepper and paprika, the latter 
being but a variety of our garden peppers, are described under spices 
(p. 515). The structure of the tomato is of special interest because of 
the adulteration of tomato products. 

TOriATO. 

There is good evidence that the tomato {Solanmn Lycopersicum L., 
Lycopersiciim esculentum Mill.) was cultivated in Peru long before the 
discovery of America. A plant believed to be the original form of the 
species grows wild in Peru, also on the Pacific coast of Mexico and Cali- 
fornia. Numerous varieties are now grown as garden vegetables through- 
out the civihzed world, except in the coldest regions. 

The fleshy fruit varies in the different varieties from the size of a 
currant to the size of a cocoanut. Its color is red, pink, or yellow, accord- 
ing to the color of the fruit flesh; the smooth, lustrous skin, however, is 
bright yellow in all the varieties. Normally the fruit is bilocular, but 
as a result of cultivation is multilocular. Numerous seeds (Fig. 313) 3-4 
mm. long, inclosed in a gelatinous mantle, partly fill the locules. Freed 
from this substance they are dull yellow, ovoid, flattened, 3-4 mm. long^ 
and thickly beset with short, silky hairs. The spirally coiled embryo 
with elongated radicle and cotyledons, each about 3 mm. long, is em- 
bedded in the endosperm. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The ripe fruit should be hardened in alcohol before cutting sections. 
The skin is separated by plunging the fruit for a moment in boihng 



TOMATO. 



411 



water. Soaking the seeds in a very dilute alkali facilitates the removal 
of the gelatinous material, after which they may be held between pieces 
of pith and sectioned. 

Pericarp. The skin which separates from the fruit 
flesh consists of epidermis and hypoderm, the walls 
of both being characterized by their golden yellow 
color. 

1. Epicarp (Fig. 314, epi). The cells, as seen in 
surface view, are polygonal, 16-35 -" i^ diameter. — 
Their yellow radial walls are thick, 6-8 /i, and dis- 
tinctly beaded. At the corners they are often collenchy- 
matously thickened. 

2. TJie Hypoderm (Fig. 314, hy) consists of a 
single layer of cells larger than those of the epicarp, yig. 313. Tomato 
but like the latter with thick, yellow, porous walls. {Solamim Lycopersi- 

ciim). Seed in cross 

3. Mesocarp. The rounded pulp cells of the ground section. (Moel- 
tissue have no distinctive characters. The vascular ^^^'' 
elements of most of the bundles are spiral vessels, seldom over 20 /i in 
diameter, but those in the strongly developed bundles near the stem 





Fig. 314. Tomato, epi epicarp and hy hypoderm of pericarp (skin), X300; ep outer 
epidermis of spermoderm with t hairs, from below. X160. (Winton.) 



are partly pitted vessels. Bast fibers accompany these latter bundles 
but are lacking elsewhere. 

4. Endocarp. This layer is of thin-walled, polygonal elements hardly 
distinguishable from the pulp cells. 

Spermoderm (Fig. 314; Fig. 315, 5). i. The Outer Epidermis {ep) 
is highly characteristic owing to numerous peculiar hairs (/), varying up 
to over 500 n in length. These hairs are broadly conical at the base, 
but taper gradually from this to the apex. The lumen in the basal 



412 



VEGETABLES. 



portion is triangular, in the remainder of the hair very narrow or not 
evident at all. They remind one of funnels with long stems. 

2. The Middle Layers consist of several layers of small, brown, oblit- 
erated cells, which in the ripe seed do not 
assume their original form even after treatment 
with reagents. 

The Perisperm (Fig. 315, N), after treat- 
ment of cross sections with Javelle water, is 
seen to consist of a distinct layer of thin-walled 
cells. 

Endosperm (Fig. 315, E). The cells have 
rather thick, rigid walls. They contain minute, 
rounded aleurone grains seldom over 6 // in 
diameter, and fat. 

The Embryo consists of typical embrj'onic 
tissues with contents the same as those of the 
endosperm. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Whole Tomato Products. Under this head 
are included canned tomatoes, tomato pre- 
serves, and other preparations of the whole 
fruit, from which the skin has been removed 
by scalding. The chief microscopic elements 
Fig. 315. Tomato. Seed in are rounded pulp cells, vascular elements (chiefly 
cSstr'n-ep^dSt™ small spiral vessels) and seeds thickly beset 
also layers of compressed cells; y^{i}^ characteristic nail-shaped hairs (Figs. 314 

N perisperm; E endosperm ,n -r- ^ r -u i • -^u 

and i?a radicle, both contain- and 315, /). Fragments of the skm with 
rwiNTONT^ ^'^''''' ^'^°' golden yellow porous cells of the epicarp (Fig. 

314, epi) and hypoderm {hy) are frequently 
present in small amount as an accidental impurity, even in products 
made from the pared fruit. The aduUerants are dyes, preservatives, 
foreign pulp and, in the case of preserves, agar-agar, starch-paste, and 
other gelatinous materials. 

Tomato Catsup, or Ketchup, a popular sauce in the United States, is 
manufactured in enormous quantities, and sold in bottles. Properly 
made it consists of a mixture of tomato pulp, freed from seeds, with 
vinegar and spices; but most of the catsup on the market is colored 
with ponceau, eosin, or other coal-tar dyes, and preserved with sodium 




TOMATO. 413 

benzoate or salicylic acid. Adulteration with pumpkin pulp and pos- 
sibly with the pulp of the carrot, turnip, and sugar beet is also practiced. 
The coal-tar dyes usually employed in tomato products do not remain 
in solution, but are taken up by the protoplasmic contents of the cells, 
which ordinarily have little or no color. Their detection is best effected 
by Arata's wool test ^ and other chemical methods. Preliminary to the 
usual chemical tests for salicilic and benzoic acids, Lagerheim's sublimi- 
nation test (p. 321) should be employed. 

For the detection of foreign pulps it is advisable to examine the coarser 
material, consisting of seeds, fragments of skin, and vascular elements, 
obtained by washing on a sieve with i mm. mesh in a stream of water. 
The vessels of the pumpkin are larger than those of the tomato; the 
epicarp. cells (Fig. 308) are smaller, non-porous and are interspersed with 
stomata. Still more characteristic are the branched and jointed latex 
cells of the mesocarp. The carrot (Fig. 322) is characterized: (i) by the 
elongated epidermal cells; (2) by the polygonal cells of the cortical paren- 
chyma containing chromoplasts; and (3) by the elements of the bundles, 
of which the rather large vessels (often 50 11 broad) with closely crowded 
reticulations, are quite different from the vessels of the tomato. The 
vessels of the beet (Fig. 321) are mostly 50 /x broad (sometimes 50-100 [x), 
witli very large and open reticulations. A noteworthy peculiarity of the 
reticulated vessels of the turnip (Fig. 323), are their short joints, often 
broader than long. The meshes are smaller than those of beet vessels. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Mace (26); Villiers et Collin (42). 
Briosi e GiGLi: Intorno alia struttura anatomica ed alia composizione chimica del 

frutto del Pomodoro {Lycopersicuni esculentum Mill.)- Rendic. delle sess. della 

R. Acad, delle scienze dell'Ist. di Bologna. 1889, 59. 
Carles: Nouveau cas de fraude de conserves ali mental res. Journ. pharm. chim. 

1885, 11, 547. 
Hockauf: Ueber bisher wenig beriicksichtige Merkmale der Solanaceen-Samen. 

Ph. Centralh. 1905. 
Marpmanx: Beitrage zur mikroskopischen Untersuchung der Fruchtmarmeladen 

Ztschr. angew. Mikr 1896, 2, 97. 

^ Ztschr. anal. chem. 1889, 28, 639; Jour. Am. Chem. See. 1900, 22, 582. 



414 



VEGETABLES. 



TUBERS AND ROOTS.i 

Of the vegetables produced underground some are tubers (potato, 
artichoke), others, true roots (beet, carrot, turnip, sweet potato), and 
others still, bulbs (onion). Those here described include some that are 
used minced or pulped in food products. 

The potato and the beet are not only important vegetables, but the 
former is a raw material for the manufacture of starch and alcohol, and 
the latter is the source of a large part of the world's supply of sugar. 

The potato and sweet potato are identified by the starch grains; 
the beet, carrot, and turnip by the vessels. 



POTATO. 

The potato {Solanum tuberosum L. order SoIanacecB), a native of 
South America, was introduced into Europe in 1560-15 70, and was 





Fig. 316. Potato {Solanum tuberosum). 
Cross section of tuber showing cork 
cells and starch parenchyma. Xi6o. 

(MOELLER.) 



Fig. 317. Potato. Cork tissue in surface 
view. X160. (MOELLER.) 



first cultivated on a considerable scale in Italy and Holland. For the 
past hundred years it has been one of the most valuable of cultivated 
plants throughout the temperate zone, the tubers serving as a vegetable 

^ The descriptions of tubers and roots are by Prof. J. Moeller. 



POTATO. JAPANESE POTATO. 



4^5 



and for the manufacture of starch, glucose and alcohol. The tubers 
differ in form and size, also in the texture, color and flavor of the flesh. 
They bear numerous "eyes" or buds in depressions on the surface. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Cork. The protective coat on the surface is a cork tissue (Fig. 316), 
with large cells, which in surface view are polygonal (Fig. 317). 

Parenchyma. The outer layers are tangentially elongated, and con- 
tain proteid matter in the form of small aleurone grains. Further in- 
ward the cells are large, isodiametric, with intercellular spaces. They 
are filled with starch grains, most of which are large, irregularly pear- 
shaped, with distinct rings and an excentric hilum located in the small 
end (See p. 659). 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The starch grains (Fig. 581) are highly characteristic. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY, 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Moeller (29); Planchon et Collin (34). 



JAPANESE POTATO. 

Under this name are known the tubers of an Asiatic plant (Siachys 
Sieboldii Miq., order Labiatce). They are 2-5 cm. long, i cm. thick, 




Fig. 318. Japanese Potato {Siachys Sieboldii). Epidermis of tuber in surface view. 

(Moeller.) 

and are divided into joints by constrictions, in each of which are two 
opposite membranaceous leaves. 



4i6 



yEGETABLES. 



HISTOLOGY. 

The Epidermis (Fig. 318) consists of irregularly polygonal cells and 
a few stomata. 

Between the Fibro -vascular Bundles are numerous small sieve tubes. 

The Parenchyma of the flesh consists of unusually small cells, con- 
taining a soluble carbohydrate, stachyose. In tubers dug in the spring, 
starch is present. 

JERUSALEH ARTICHOKE. 

The tubers of Helianthus tuberosus L. (order CompositcB), a North 
American plant, are of some importance as food for both man and cattle. 
They are red -brown, elongated, often pear-shaped, and bear small roots, 
warty sprouts, and transverse rings. The flesh is white or red. 



HISTOLOGY. 

The bark is scarcely i mm. thick. 

1. The Epidermis (Fig. 319), which is easily removed, consists of 
large, polygonal, slightly thickened cells, and here and there cork tissue 
with large cells. 

2. Cortex (Fig. 319). The cells are quadrilateral, and often trans- 




FiG. 319. Jerusalem Artichoke {Helianthus tuberosus). Epidermis and one of the paren- 
chyma layers of tuber in surface view. (Moeller.) 

versely elongated. Some of them have somewhat thickened, scleren- 
chymatizcd walls. 

3. The Bast contains balsam ducts, but no bast fibers. ■ 

4. Xylem. Within the indistinct cambium arc irregular groups of 
vessels, often in radial rows. The cavity is narrow; the walls have thick 



JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE. BEET. 417 

reticulations. Large, rather thick-walled cells containing inulin con- 
stitute the medullary rays. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The balsam tubes, the quadrilateral stone cells of the cortex and the 
narrow reticulated vessels serve for identification. 

BEET. 

The roots of the common beet {Beta vulgaris L., order ChenopodiacecB)^ 
and particularly the exhausted residue from the beet-sugar factories, are 
used both as cattle foods and as adulterants of chicory. 



HISTOLOGY. 

The Cork (Fig. 320) forms a thin outer zone of large cells with thick 
walls. By far the 
larger part of the root 
consists of Parenchyma 
(Fig. 321, p), the cells 
of which are about 
250 a in diameter, with 
walls 5 a thick. On 
warming with water 
or soaking for a short 
time in alkali, inter- 
cellular material is evi- 
dent. 





Fig. 320. Beet {Beta vid- Fig. 321. Beet. Longitudinal section of root, p paren- 

gQris). Cork layers of root chyma; g reticulated vessels; / bast fibers. X160. 

in surface view. X160. (Moeller.) 

(MOELLER.) 



41 <S 



VEGET/IBLES. 



The Vessels (Fig. 321, g) are mostly 50 ^«, occasionally up to 100 ,«, 
the reticulations forming broad meshes. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hanausek, T. F. (16); ISIace (26); 
Moeller (29); Planclion et Collin (34); Vogl (45, 48). 



CARROT. 

Occasionally the carrot {Daiicus Carota L., order Umhellijerce) is em- 
ployed as an adulterant of chicory. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The Cork and Parenchyma are similar to those of the beet, but the 




Fig. 322. Carrot (Daucns Carota). Longitudinal section of root showing parenchyma 
and reticulated vessels. Xi6o. (Moeller.) 

parenchyma consists of smaller cells, which contain yellow chromoplasts 
suspended in the cell sap. 

The Vessels (Fig. 322, g) are seldom over 50 /< broad, and arc charac- 



CARROT. TURNIP. 



419 



terized by their narrow elongated pores, resembling those in the vessels 
of the dandelion root. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See Bibliography of Beet. 

TURNIP. 

The white turnip (Brasska Rapa L., order Cnicijerce) serves as a 
food for man and beast, also as an adulterant of coffee, horseradish, etc. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The cork is similar to that of the beet, but the cells are smaller. More 
characteristic are the cells of the Parenchyma (Fig. 323, p), which are 

9 




Fig. 323. White Turnip (Brasska Rapa). Longitudinal section of root, p parenchyma; 
5 reticulated vessels; a starch grains. Xi6o. (Moeller.) 

exceptionally large (commonly 500 /() and thin-walled (2 /-<). They con- 
tain small aleurone grains, and here and there crystal sand (calcium 
oxalate). 

The Vessels (g) consist of short joints, and have narrow, rounded 
pores resembling those of chicory. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See Bibliography of Beet. 

FUNGI.i 

Edible fungi when whole and fresh may usually be distinguished by 
their gross appearance. Only in the examination of the dried material 

' The descriptions of the individual fungi are by Prof. J. IVIoeller. 



420 VEGETABLES. 

or food products containing sliced or minced fungi is the microscope 
essential. 

The common species found on the market belong in tlie following 
subclasses and orders : 

Ascomycetes: Spores produced within sacs (asci.) 

1. Discomycetes : Asci borne on the outer surface of various 

shaped fructifications (e.g., Morel). 

2. Tuberaceas: Asci borne within a tuberous fructification (e.g., 

Truffles). 
Basidiomycetes: Spores produced on the surface of sacs (basidia). 

1. Hymenomycetes : Basidia borne within the (usually umbrella- 

■ shaped) fructification on gills (e.g., common mushroom), rods 
(e.g., Boletus), etc. 

2. Gasteromycetes : Basidia borne within the (often tuber-shaped) 

frucfification (e.g. puff-balls). 
The descriptions which follow are designed merely to aid in detect- 
ing adulteration and not to distinguish edible from poisonous species. 

TRUFFLES. 

Fungi belonging to the order TuberacecB of the Ascomycetes develop 
underground tuberous fructifications known as truffles. These bodies 
are black or dark brown, with pyramidal or shield-shaped, polygonal 
warts. Cross sections show cavities or channels lined with masses of 
hyphai tissues (hymenium), in which are borne club-shaped elements 
(asci), each containing 1-4 (seldom more) unicellular spores (Fig. 325). 
The size, form, color and markings of the spores furnish the best means 
for identification of the species. They are obtained for study either by 
cutting sections of the inner tissues, or by scraping the inner surface. The 
following are the conmion species. 

I. French or Perigord Truffles {Tuber hrumale Vitt.) because of their 
fine flavor are the most highly prized of the group. They grow mostly 
under oaks in France, Northern Italy, and Southern Germany. The fruit 
bodies vary from the size of a hazelnut to that of an apple. On the 
surface they are black, with well-defined warts ; within they are dark 
violet or red-black. The spores are coffee-brown, elliptical, 25-45 /t 
long, thickly beset with prickles (Fig. 326, d). The true perigord truffle 
(var. M elanos permum) has dark, very aromatic flesh, and almost black, 
often large spores (Fig. 326, c). 



TRUFFLES. 



421 



2. German or Hanover Truffles {Tuber astivum Vitt., also var. mesen- 
terkuni and uncinatum) are less aromatic than the preceding. They are 
obtained from Northern Italy, r^,^^> ^-■?^^>i:-5^?^0s^!(/^^,7.'^?^^^ 

France, Germany, Switzerland, and """^ ------ vs -.-v.. -\..!(«,i.>^r:; 

Bohemia. The flesh is lighter than 
that of French truffles, and the 





Fig. 324. German TruflBes {Tuber cesti- Fig. 325. TTenchTruffies {Tuber brumale). 
vum). Vertical section showing rind, Section showing hyphas and spore-bear- 

air passages, dark veins of compressed ing asci. X400. (Tulasne.) 

hyphae, and masses of asci. Natural 
size. (Tulasne.) 

yellow or coffee-brown spores (Fig. 326, a, h) are characterized by their 
broad reticulations. 

DIAGNOSIS. 
"Whole truffles cannot be successfully adulterated, but in the dried 




Fig. 326. Spores of Truffles and Substitutes, a and b German Truffles: c and d French 
truffles; e white truffles; / false truffles {Scleroderma); g false truffles {Rliizopogon). 
(Mez.) 

condition other fungi are often substituted. Truffled pates frcqucntly 
contain these substitutes. They are detected by their color and the 



422 



VEGETABLES. 



characters of the spores, although it is difficult or impossible to determine 
the exact species. 

The following are the common substitutes: 

1. White Truffles {Choiromyces maeandrijormis Vitt.) arc found in 
England and middle Europe. They are light yellow-brown, and re- 
semble potatoes in external appearance. The flesh is white to brown, 
with brown veins, and is but slightly aromatic. The small (15-20 jx) 
globular spores are light brown, beset with numerous prickles of unequal 
length (Fig. 326, e). 

2. False Truffles {Scleroderma vulgare Hornem. — Gasteromycetes) are 
aerial, tuberous bodies about the size of genuine truffles, with a 
skin 2-3 mm. thick. Within, the tissues are at first white, later gray to 
black. The small spores are globular, black, with prickly warts (Fig. 
326, /). They can only be used green, in which state they have a dis- 
agreeable flavor quite unlike that of real truffles. 

3. Species of Rhizopogon (Gasteromycetes) develop under ground 
tuberous bodies, externally similar to those of Scleroderma. They have 

a membranous or leathery periderm difficultly separ- 
able from the flesh, and very small, ellipsoidal, smooth, 
almost colorless spores (Fig. 326, g). 

4. Species of Elapkomyces are closely related to 
real truffles. Their fruit bodies develop under ground, 
and on ripening are converted into a powdery mass. 
They are not edible. 



nORELS. 

The morels belong to the order Discomycetes, of the 
subclass Ascomycetcs. The fleshy, club-shaped or 
globular head is borne on a stalk. The hymenium 
(Fig. 327) covers the reticulated outer surface of the 
head, and consists of a palisade-like layer of asci 
and paraphyses, each of the former containing eight 
smooth, mostly ellipsoidal spores. 

The following species are of importance : ' 

I. The Common Morel (Morchella esculenta Pers.) 




Fio. 327. Common 
Morel (Morchella 
esculenta). Cross 
section through 
hymenium, show- 
ing asci and para- 
physes. (Mez.) 



has a hollow stalk, yellow to brown head, and ochre-colored spores. 
2. The Spring Morel (Gyromitra esculenta Fr.) has a hollow stalk, 
hollow or collapsed coffee-brown head, and w^hite spores. 



MORELS. MUSHROOMS. 



4^3 



3. The Autumn Morel (Helvella Injula Schaffer) has a thin brown 
head united only in the middle with the stalk, and white spores. 

All the species are edible, although the spring morel and some others 
must be first treated with hot water to remove a poisonous principle, 
which also disappears slowly on drying. 

nusHRoons. 

These are umbrella-shaped, and bear the hymenium on the under 
surface of the head. They belong to the order Hymenomycetes of the 
subclass Basidiomycetes. 

I. The Field Mushroom {PsaUiota campcstris Fr., Agaricus cam- 
pestris — AgaricinccE) has when young a globular head, which later becomes 
spreading, reaching 15 cm. in breadth. 
The upper surface is brownish; 
the flesh is white. On the under 
surface are numerous spore-bearing 
gills, which are at first pink, but later 
are brown, as are also the elliptical 
spores (8:6/<). The stalk is white, 
6-8 cm. long, with a thick mem- 
branous ring (volva) near the center. 
Cross-sections through the lamellae 
show in the middle a layer of broad 
hyphffi (Fig. 329), flanked on both sides 
by small hyphae from which spring 
the basidia, also the sterile bodies 
known as paraphyses. The spores are borne on the surface of the basidia. 







Fig. 328. Field Mushroom {PsaUiota 
(^Agaricus) campestris). i Natural 
size, showing /lamellae. 2 Cross section 
of a lamella, magnified. (Sachs.) 




Fi(i. 329. Field Mushroom. Cross section of a lamella, strongly magnified. (Mez.) 

The poisonous Amanita phalloides Quel {A. hidhosa Bull.) has a 
bulbous thickening at the base of the stalk, bordered by a sac-like mem- 



424 



VECET/iBLES. 



branc, also white spores. Cross sections of the lamellae show that the 
middle hyphae layer is surrounded by hyphae spreading out in bows 

(Fig. Z2>o)' 

2. Boletus edulis Bull. {B. hulhosus Schaff. — Polyporece) and other edible 
species of Bcletus, are distinguished from the species of the Afi^aricinece 




Fig. 330. Puisunuus Amanita (.1. phalloidcs). Cross suctiun uf a lamella. i.Mez.) 

by the thick swollen stalk, and the dependent tubes on the under surface 
of the head. The brown head is at first semiglobular, later spreading, 
reaching 20 cm. Its flesh is white, and does not greatly change in color 
on exposure. The tube layer, which is easily removed from the under 
side of the head, is at first white, later yellow or green-yellow. The 
spores are spindle-shaped, smooth, yellow or brown. 



PART VIII. 

ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS AND THEIR 
SUBSTITUTES. 



ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS.^ 

Savage and civilized nations alike arc addicted to the use of alka- 
loidal as well as alcoholic stimulants. The American aborigines long before 
the discovery of the continent by Columbus were acquainted with the 
virtues of the cocoa bean and the tobacco leaf, and the natives of West 
Africa have for centuries chewed the cola nut. The products here 
described include those containing caffein, theobromin and nicotine, also 
certain substitutes free from alkaloids. Opium and other more potent 
alkaloidal products are considered in works on pharmacognosy. 

COFFEE. 

Coffee, next to sugar the most important product imported from 
the tropics, is the seed of a small tree or shrub, Co^^fa Arahlca L. (order 
Rubiacecz), a native of Abyssinia and other parts of Africa. In the fifteenth 
century the tree was introduced into Arabia, where the beverage became 
popular with all classes, notwithstanding the opposition of the Moham- 
medan priests. Coffee drinking was soon taken up by all the Saracenic 
races and later by the European nations. 

For over two hundred years the culture of the coffee tree w^as limited 
to Arabia, but in the latter part of the seventeenth century it was suc- 
cessfully undertaken by the Dutch in Java, and somewhat later in Surinam, 
and the industry soon spread over Sumatra, India, Ceylon, Western 
Africa, and other parts of the Eastern Hemisphere, as well as over the 
West Indies and the tropical parts of South America. To-day Brazil 
leads the world in coffee production, although the choicest grades come 
from Arabia (genuine Mocha coffee) and Java. 

The white and delightfully fragrant flowers of the coffee tree are 
produced in the axils of the leaves. The fruit (Fig. 331) is about the 
size of a small cherry, and is red or purple when fully ripe. It normally 



' The descriptions of tea, tobacco, and all other leaves, also of chicory, dandelion, 
guarana, and cola nut are by Prof. J. Moeller. 

427 



428 



y4LKALOlDAL PRODUCTS. 



contains two cells, each with a single plano-convex seed (Figs. 331 and 
332) so situated that the flat surfaces of the two seeds adjoin one another, 



/>/,> 



Mk 






I II 

Fio. 331. Coffee {Cojfea Arabica). I cross section of berr}', natural size. Ph outer peri- 
carp; Mk endocarp; Ek spermoderm; Sa hard endosperm; Sp soft endosperm. // 
longitudinal section of berry, natural size; Dis bordered disc; Se remains of sei^als; 
Em embryo. /// embryo, enlarged: cot cotyledon; rad radicle. (Tschirch and 
Oesterle.) 

but in the so-called peaberry coffee, one of the ovules is abortive, the other 
developing into a rounded seed filling the single cavity. The outer portion 
of the fruit is dark colored and pulpy, lined by a buff, parchment-like 
endocarp. The seeds, which before roasting are yellow or light green, 
have a longitudinal cleft on the flattened side due 
to the folding of the endosperm. A papery spermo- 
derm, known as the silver skin, covers not only 
the outer surface but penetrates also the cleft. 
The minute embryo (Fig. 331, // Em, III) is 
situated in the endosperm near the base of the 
seed. 

Various processes, some dry, others wet, are 
employed for remo^•ing the pericarp and spermo- 
derm from the seed. In the West Indies and South 
America, the larger part of the fruit flesh is first 
Fig. 332. Coffee. Cross- removed by a pulpcr, after which the pulp still 
section of bean showing adhering is loosened bv a fermentation process and 
folded endosperm with ' a r i • i 

hard and soft tissues, washcd away by water. After dr\'mg, the spermo- 

X6. (MoELLER.) derm and endocarp are broken away from the seed 

and separated by winnowing. The spermoderm is also removed from the 
surface but not from the cleft. Roasting, swells the seed greatly, changes 
its color to dark brown, and develops the characteristic odor and flavor 
of roasted coffee by the formation of calTeol and other substances. 




COFFEE. 



429 



Ep — -afDOC 







HISTOLOGY. 

As fresh material is not obtainable in the temperate zone except from 
botanical gardens, alcoholic or dried specimens must be used for histo- 
logical studies. 

Coffee beans, as found on the market, whether unroasted or roasted, 
consist only of the endosperm, embr\'o, and that portion of the spermo- 
derm within the cleft, although occa- 
sionally fragments of the pericarp 
occur with the beans as an acci- 
dental impurity. The pericarp may 
be sectioned dry, the endosperm 
after soaking in water. 

The Pericarp after drying is of 
a dark color about 0.5 mm. thick. ^''* 

As the outer layers arc soft and 
the endocarp hard, no little difficulty 
is experienced in preparing sections. 
Fof cutting transverse sections, the 
dr}- material freed from the seed 
may be embedded in hard parafiine 
and cut with a strong razor or 
microtome knife, taking care that 
the palisade cells and endocarp, 
which are liable to separate from the 
outer layers, are not lost. Staining 
with safranin, naphthylene blue or 
methylene blue is recommended. 

I. The Epicarp Cells (Figs. t,7,t, 
and 334, ep) are 15-35 /'- broad, 
sharply polygonal, occasionally four- Fig. t,t,7,. 
sided, with brown walls and con ^^"' 




HDC 






)rf\ 



Coffee. Cross section of hull and 
Pericarp consists of 7 epicarp, 2, j 
layers of mcsocarp with 4 fibro-vascular 
bundle, 5 palisade layer, and 6 endocarp; 
55 spermoderm consists of 8 sclerenchynia 
and p parench\Tna; end endosperm. 
(TscHiRCH and Oesterle.) 



tents. Stomata with two accom- 
panying cells similar to the guard 
cells in form occur here and there. 

2. Mesocarp (Figs, 2,33, 334, and 335). Proceeding inward, the 
cells increase in size until they reach a maximum of about 100 //. Their 
walls are thick and either brown or yellow. Brown amorphous masses 
and occasionally large crystals arc noticeable in the outer layers. In 



43° 



ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS. 



the innermost part of the mesocarp, through which ramify the fibro- 
vascular bundles, the cells are commonly compressed. The strongly 
developed bundles contain bast fibers up to i mm. long and 2$ jx broad, 
with thick walls and narrow lumen, spiral vessels mostly narrower than 
the bast fibers, but with noticeably thick spirals, pitted vessels, and other 
less conspicuous elements. 

3. Palisade Layer (Fig. 333, 5). These cells are greatly elongated 
in radial directions and have walls of mucilaginous structure which swell 




pp 




Fig. 334. Cotlee. -Surface view ot e/) epicarp Fic. 335. Coffee. Elements of pericarpi n 
and p outer parenchyma of mesocarp. surface view, p parenchyma; hp paren- 

X160. (M0EI.LER.) chyma of fibro-vascular bundle; h bast 

fiber; 5/? spiral vessel. X160. (Moeller.) 

in water. Because of these peculiarities, as well as the difficulties of 
cutting so soft a tissue when adjoining a hard coat like the endocarp, 
special care must be exercised in preparing sections. Safranin stains 
the swollen wall carmine, but does not affect the yellowish contents. 
Vogl states that naphthylene blue colors both the walls and contents blue- 
violet. 

4. Endocarp (Fig. 333, 6\ Fig. 336). Closely united with the palisade 
layer is the thin, but hard, buff-colored endocarp resembling in macro- 
scopic and microscopic structure the endocarp of the apple. The fibers 
cross one another at various angles, but in the outer layers their general 
direction is longitudinal, while in the inner layer it is transverse. The 
fibers of the inner layer are thin-walled, whereas those of the other layers 
are thick-walled and conspicuously porous. 

Spermoderm. Although the spermoderm is removed from the sur- 
face of most of the seeds in preparing them for market, fragm.cnts suffi- 



COFFEE. 



431 



cicnt for study may often be obtained from unroastcd coffee. Within 
the cleft the spermoderm is almost always intact, even after roasting, 




Fig. 336. Coffee. Sclerenchyma fibers of endocarp. X160. (Moeller.) 

and may be readily removed in one piece after soaking the seed for some 
hours in water. 

I. Sclerenchyma Cells (Fig. 333, 8; Fig. 337, st) form the character- 
istic outer layer. In the early stages of development the coat is uninter- 





I J)' ■^\Vv^.\^; \ 




X1^ 1 






■^■^MMy 



Fig. 337. Coffee. Spermoderm in surface view, f/ sclerenchyma; p compressed paren- 
chyma. X 160. (Moeller.) 

rupted, but in the mature seed, as a result of more rapid growth of adjoin- 
ing tissues, they arc more or less detached, occurring singly, in pairs or 



432 



/ILKALOIDAL PRODUCTS. 



in groups, either widely separated or with only small intercellular spaces 
between them. They vary from less than loo /i to over i mm. in length 
and from 15-50 n in breadth. The longer cells, occurring in groups 
within the cleft, are straight and narrow, resembling bast fibers, while 
the medium and shorter cells, occurring both on the surface and in the 
cleft, are broader and more irregular in outline, vermiform and club- 
shaped forms predominating, although triangular and various fantastic 
shapes are not uncommon. Great variations in the thickness of the 
walls and the size and number of the pores are also noticeable. 

2. Parenchyma Cells (Fig. t,t,2)^ p; Fig. 337, p), more or less obliter- 
ated, form the remainder of the spermoderm. Occasionally cells with 
beaded walls are distinguishable, but in most parts the cells are not 
clearly evident, the tissue appearing like a structureless membrane. 
Through this tissue in the cleft runs the raphe, with narrow spiral vessels, 
which are best seen after treatment with alkali or chloral hydrate. 

Endosperm (Figs. ;^;^t, and 338). Coffee, like the date stone and the 
ivory-nut, contains only the minutest traces of starch, the carbohydrate 




Fig. 338. CofTce. Cross section of outer layers of endosperm showing knotty thickenings 
of cell walls. Xi6o. (Moeller.) 



reserve material being largely in the form of cellulose stored up in the 
cell-walls of the endosperm. In sections, the cell-walls, except in the 
outer layers, appear to be knotty-thickened, owing to the large pores 
In- which they arc pierced, the double walls in the knots ranging up to 
20 fi in thickness. The cells are smallest in the cuticularizcd outer layer, 
where they are 15-50 « in diameter, but in the inner layers they often 
reach 100 /t. To the naked eye the central portion of the endosperm 
(Fig 332) has a somewhat different appearance from the remainder, due 
to the presence of an interrupted series of tangentially elongated cells, 



COFFEE. 433 



the walls of which, excepting the middle lamella, are composed of a 
mucilaginous substance, and consequently disappear on treatment with 
water. It is in this mucilaginous tissue near the base that the minute 
embryo is embedded. Tschirch regards this soft tissue as useful in facili- 
tating the absorption of the reserve material by the sprouting plantlet. 
Treatment with various reagents and stains, such as chlorzinc iodine, 
iodine-sulphuric acid, naphthylene blue, and safranin, show that the thick- 
ened cell-walls consist of cellulose. Reagents also serve for the identi- 
fication of the cell-contents. For example, concentrated sulphuric acid 
produces a fine red color showing the presence of sugars, iron salts give 
a green color due to tannic acid, various reagents show the presence 
of proteids, sometimes in the form of aleurone grains, while numerous 
micro-tests given by Tschirch and Oesterle confirm the presence of caf- 
fein. Vogl notes that sections are colored an intense yellow by caustic 
potash and soda, and a green-yellow changing to green by ammonia. 
Heating with chloral hydrate imparts a blue-green coloration to the 
contents, but this reaction, as well as some of the others, is not distinct 
in the case of roasted coffee, and is therefore of no practical value. 

The Embryo (Fig. 331, ///) may be obtained by cutting a bean, previ- 
ously soaked overnight in water, through the cleft and carefully splitting 
open the endosperm through the mucilage cells. 
After longer soaking in water or in dilute alkali, 
the embryo bursts through the endosperm at the 
basal end. The blunt radicle is 3-4 mm. lono- 
the heart-shaped cotyledons 1-2 mm. long. After 
clearing With alkah, or better with Javelle water Fig. 339. Coffee. Tis- 
or chloral hydrate, the cotyledons are seen to have tk.? °^xT6o'^°(Mo'el" 
three pairs of sparingly branching nerves. The ^^^•) 
small cells and procambium bundles filled with protoplasm and fat are 
of little diagnostic importance (Fig. 339). 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Coffee reaches the consumer either "green" (unroasted) or roasted, 
and in the latter case either whole or ground. Roasting, as ordinarily 
conducted, changes the color of the bean to a rich brown which renders 
most of the microchemical tests of little value, but does not seriously 
obscure the structure of either the spermoderm or endosperm. 

Whole Coffee, also known as "coffee beans" and "coffee berries," 
is charactenzed by the form and horny texture of the endosperm, and the 




434 y4LKALOIDAL PRODUCTS. 

presence of the spermoderm or "chaff" in the cleft. The spermoderm 
without special preparation is readily identified under the microscope by 
the more or less isolated sclerenchyma cells; the endosperm, in section, 
by the knotty-thickened walls, and the absence of more than the faintest 
trace of starch. 

The adulteration of genuine coffee with beans previously used for 
the manufacture of coffee extract cannot be detected by microscopical 
examination, although the coating of these beans, as well as of inferior 
grades of unextracted coffee, with various pigments, is sometimes evident 
in microscopic sections. 

Ground Coffee varies in fineness from coarsely crushed beans to a 
powder passing a i mm. sieve. Usually there is an abundance of frag- 
ments large enough to section with a razor, either dry or after soaking, 
thus permitting an examination of the cell-walls of the endosperm (Fig. 
338). The papery flakes of spermoderm (Fig. 337) may be picked out 
with forceps. 

If a handful is stirred with cold water, true coffee, except for a few 
over-roasted fragments, floats; whereas the common adulterants, including 
peas and other legumes, cereal grains, chicory and other roots, imitation 
coffee, etc., sink rapidly to the bottom, their nature being determined by 
microscopic examination. Artificial coffee made from oil-seed products 
is said to float. 

Outer Coffee Hulls, consisting of the epicarp, the mesocarp, and 
traces of the paHsade layer, are utilized by the Arabians in the prepara- 
tion of a fermented liquor, "Kischer" or "Gischr. " These hulls are 
also exported from coffee-growing regions under the names "Sultan 
coffee," and "sacca-coffee, " as an adulterant of coffee, the fact that they 
are a product of the coffee tree and the claim that they contain a certain 
amount of caffein and other valuable constituents being offered as excuses 
for their use. These claims are not worthy of consideration, as the 
product is even more worthless than most of the common substitutes. 

The hulls occur in small amount in genuine coffee, but when the 
amount is considerable, adulteration is indicated. Tliey are of a black 
color, with a small ring about 2 mm. in diameter at the upper end, in 
the middle of which is the scar of the style. Highly characteristic ele- 
ments being absent, it is often difficult to identify the material in pow- 
der form. The epicarp (Fig. 334, ep) and brown mesocarp resemble 
the corresponding tissues of the carob bean, though the epicarp of coffee 
may be distinguished by the stomata with two adjoining cells and the 



COFFEE. 



435 



thicker-walled mesocarp, the contents of which do not give the blue or 
violet color on warming with alkali. 

Inner Coffee Hulls, consisting of endocarp with particles of the ad- 
hering palisade layers, are parchment-like in texture and of a buff color. 
Although they have scarcely more value than sawdust, they have been used 
in the United States as an adulterant of wheat bran and other cattle foods. 
Charred hulls have recently been detected by the writer in ground pepper. 
This material is characterized by the groups of crossing fibers (Fig. 336) . 

Artificial Coffee Beans moulded from dough, sometimes with the 
admixture of chicory and other materials, resemble genuine roasted 
beans in form and color, but are distinguished by the exact, correspon- 
dence of beans from the same mould, the shallow cleft, the absence 
of chaff in the cleft, the granular texture, and other physical charac- 
teristics which can be learned only by experience. As usually prepared, 
they sink at once in cold water. Under the microscope, starch and other 
elements of the constituents are identified. 

Artificial Broken Coffee similar to the artificial beans, but made in 
irregular lumps, not moulded in the forms of beans, resembles closely 
broken coffee beans and serves as an adulterant both for whole and ground 
coffee. Another form of artificial coffee much used in America consists 
of pea hulls, cereal matter, and molasses, made into small pellets. 

The Fruits and Seeds used most commonly as substitutes or adulter- 
ants of coffee are wheat, rye, barley, maize, and other cereals, also cereal 
products, such as bran, middlings, bread, etc.; peas, beans, lupines, 
cassia seeds, astragalus seeds, Parkia seeds, chick peas, soja beans, pea- 
nuts, and other leguminous seeds; dried figs, prunes, pears, bananas, and 
carob bean pods; date stones, ivory nuts, acorns, grape seeds, fruit of the 
wax palm, cola nut {Mussaende-Kafjee), and false flax. 

Roots. Chicory is by far the commonest root used in coffee. It is 
gummy, sweet to the taste, colors cold water a deep yellow, and is identi- 
fied by the vessels and latex cells. Other roots used are dandelion, 
beet, turnip, and carrot, all of these being adulterants of chicory. 

Coffee Substitutes (European). Among the hundreds of proprie- 
tary articles sold in Europe as substitutes for coffee are the following: 
"Kanon" (rye, coffee, chicory); "Datel Kaffee" (wheat, chicory, figs, 
and coffee); "Homeopathischer Gesundheitskaffee " (wheat, chicory, 
and cocoa shells); " Hygienischer Nahrkaffee" (cereals and acorns); 
"German Soda Coffee" (cereals, chicory, and sodium carbonate); 
"Jamaika Kaffee" (barley); "Mokka-Sakka-Kaffee" (barley and other 



436 y4LK/1L0IDAL PRODUCTS. 

constituents); " Saladinkaff ee " (maize); " Malto-Kaffee " (malt or 
mixtures of malt and other cereals); " Kraft -Kaffee, " "Frucht-Kaffee" 
and "AUerwelts Kaffee" (lupine seeds); "Mogdad," "Neger," and 
" Stephanie-Kaffee " (seeds of Cassia occidentalis and C. soplwra); 
"Sudan-Kaffee" (seeds of Parkia Ajricana and P. higlohosa); "Schwe- 
dische Kontinental-Kaffee " (seeds of Astragalus hoeticus); "Deutscher" 
or " Franzosischer Kaffee" (chick pea); " Unganscher Kaffee" (coffee, 
lupines, and chicory); " Af ricanischer Nussbohnen Kaffee" (peanuts); 
"Bayrischer Kaffee" (beets, figs, rye, and legumes); "Mokara" or "Fei- 
genkaffee" (figs); "Figine" (figs and chicor}'); "Melilotin Kaffee" (coffee, 
chicory, and date stones); "Almond Coffee" (originally made of the 
tubers of Cyperus esculentus L., later of acorns, chicory, and dandelion 
root); "Frank Kaffee" (chicory); "Cafe de Rheims" and "Rations 
Coffee" of the French army (coffee and chicory); "Domkaffee" 
(chicory). 

Coffee Substitutes (American). Among the preparations made in 
the United States, the following have been found to consist of various 
preparations of cereals: "Ralston Cereal Coffee," "Grain-O," "Postum 
Cereal Coffee," "Ayer's Hygienic Substitute for Coffee," "New Era 
Hygienic Coffee," "Sliredded Cereal Coffee," "J. W. Clark's Phosphi 
Cereal Nervine Coffee," and many others. Other preparations are: 
"Old Grist Mill Entire Wheat Coffee" (wheat, peas, and real coffee); 
"Fischer Mills Fresh Roasted Malt Coffee;" "Kneipp Malt Coffee" 
(barley or malt); "Kentucky Coffee" (Caesalpinia pulcherrima). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (^); Greenish (14); Hanausek, T. F. 

(10); Hassall (19); Leach (25); Mace (26); Moeller (29, 30, 31, 32); Molisch {^^); 

Planchon et Collin (34); Schimper (37); Tschirch u. Oestede (40); Villiers et Collin 

(42); Vogl (43, 45)- 

Brunotte: a Pseudo-substitute of Coffee. Rev. internat. falsificat. 1896, 9, 48. 

Cazeneuve: Artificial Coffee Beans. Petit mon. de !a pharm. 1894, 15 13. 

Coster, Hoorn u. Mazure: Falsifications observees en Holland. Rev. internat. 
falsificat. 1887-88, 1, 162. 1890, 4, 7. 

Cribb: Note on (i) Samples of Coffee Containing Added Starch; (2) Sample of Artifi- 
cial Coffee Berries. Analyst. 1902, 27, 114. 

Draper: Detection of Coffee Adulterations. Phil. Mag. .34, 104. 

Dustan: Der sogenannte jNIussaenda-Kaffee von Reunion. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. 
Hyg. 1890, 4, 13. 

Fricke: Sogenannter Congo-Kaffee. Ztschr. angew. Chem. 1889, 2, 121. 



COFFEE. 437 

Gawalowski: Ersatzmittel fiir Kaffeebohnen. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1896, 9, 

123. 
Greinert: Ueber Negerkaffee. Pharm. Ztg. 1889, 34, 192. 
Gundriser: Ueber ein Kaffeesurrogat aus den Samen der blauen Lupine {Lupimis 

angusiifolius). Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1892, 6, 373. 
Hanausek, E.: Kiinstliche Kaffeebohnen. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1890, 4, 25, 

172. 
Hanausek, T. F.: Dattelkeme als Kaffeesurrogat. Chem. Ztg. 1886, 10, 701. 
Hanausek, T. F.: Kiinstliche Kaffeebohnen. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1889, 

3,3- 
Hanausek, T. F.: Die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Frucht und des Samens von Coffea, 

arabica. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1890, 4, 237, 257. 1891, 5, 185, 218. 1893, 

', 85, 195. 
Hanausek, T. F.: Zum Bau der Kaffeebohnen. 66. Vers, deutsch, Naturf. u. Aerzte. 

Wien, 1894. 
James: Le cafe torrifie, engrains, factice. Revue d'hyg. 1890, No. 12. 
KoNiG: Kunstkaffee. Chem. Centralbl. 1889.20, i, 51. 
KoNiG: Die Friichte der Wachspalme als Kaffeesurrogate. Centr.-Org. f. Waarenk. 

u. Techn. 1891, 1, i. 
Kornauth: Communications di verses conccrnant les denrees alimentaires et les 

boissons. Rev. internat. falsificat. 1889-90, 3, 195. 
Kornauth: Beitrage zur chemischen und mikroskopischen Untersuchung des Kaffees 

und der Kaffeesurrogate. Hilger, Mitth. Lab. angew. Chem. Erlangen, III 

Heft. Miinchen, 1890, i. 
Kornauth; Zur Beurtheilungen der Kaffeesurrogate Ztschr. angew. Chem. 1891, 

645- 
Mansfeld: Bericht iiber die Thatigkeit der Untersuchungsanstalt des Allgemeinen oster- 

reichischen Apothekervereines und des Wiener Apotheker-Hauptgremiums. Ztschr. 

Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1896, 10, 336. 
Mansfeld: Kaffeesurrogate. Jahresber. Unters. allg. osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1901, 10. 
Moeller: Ueber Mogdad-Kaffee. Pharm. Centralh. 22, 133. Dingler's Polytechn. 

Jour. 1880, 237, 61. 
MoRPURGO: Eine einfache Methode zurEntdeckung kiinstlicher Farbungen der Kaffee- 
bohnen. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1898, 6, 9. 
Nevinny: Die Nahrungs- und Genussmittel Wiens. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg 1887, 

1, 21. 
Nevinny: Zur Verfalschung des Feigenkaffees. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1887, 

1, 85. 
Fade: Neue Falschungen des Kaffees. Chem. Centralbl. 1889, 20, 2. 
Portele: Kiinstliche Kaffeebohnen. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters Hyg. 1889, 3, 221. 
Raumer: Ein neues Kaffeesurrogate. Forschber. Lebensm. Hyg. 1894, 1, 293. 
Raumer: Ueber den Nachvi^eis kiinstlicher Farbungen bei Rohkaffee. Forschber. 

Lebensm. Hyg. 1896, 3, 333. 
Reuter: Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Bestandtheile des Mogdad-Kaffees. Pharm. 

Centralh. 1889, 30, 494. 
Rohrig: Afrikanischer Nussbohnenkaffee. Forschber. Lebensm. Hyg. 1895, 2, 15. 



43^ ALK/iLOlDAL PRODUCTS. 

Ruffin: Fabrikation, Veranderungen und Falschungen der Cichorien. Ann. chim. 

anal. 1898, 3, 114. 
Samelson: Ueber Kunstkaffee. Ztschr. angew. Chem. 1890, 482. 
Street: Coffee Hulls. New Jersey Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 160, 1902. 
Stutzer: Ueber Kunstkaffee. Ztschr. angew. Chem. 1888, 1, 699. 1890, 549. 
Trillich: Ueber INIalzkaffee und Kaffeesurrogate. Ztschr. angew. Chem. 1891, 540. 
Trillich: Kaffee und Kaffeesurrogate. Ztschr. angew. Chem. 1896, 440. 
Trillich: Ueber Kaffee mit thranenformigen Bohnen. Ztschr. offentl. Chem. 1898, 

542. 
Waage: Ueber kiinstliche Kaffecbohnen. Apoth.-Ztg. 1890, 5, 219. 
Wolffenstein: Untersuchung einiger Kaffeepraparate. Ztschr. angew. Chem. 1890, 



LIBERIAN COFFEE. 

Liberian coffee {Cofjea Liber ica Bull.) is found wild and cultivated in 
Liberia and the whole of the Guinea coast. The limited product is 
exported chiefly to England and the Continent. 

The fruit is extremely large, averaging i to ij inches in length, ellip- 
soidal, and pointed at both ends. Compared with C. Arabica the pulp 
is thicker, the parchment hard and brittle, never clear, and the spermo- 
derm or silver skin stronger, tougher and more tightly rolled into the 
deep, narrow furrow. The bean also is unusually large, peculiar in 
form, dark brown in color, and heavy in weight. Although coarser 
flavored, owing to its strength it is well adapted for admixture with better 
sorts. 

Hartwich notes that the embryo of C. Liherica is 7.5 mm, long, that 
of C. Arabica only 4 mm.; also that the stone cells of the spermoderm 
are 880 /( long and 5 1 /x broad in the former, while they are but 484 // 
long and 41 // broad in the latter species. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Hartwich:^ Coffea liberica. Schw. Woch. Chem, Pharm. 1896, 34, 473, 

CHICORY. 

The oldest and commonest substitute for coffee is the root of chicory 
(Chicorium Intybus L., order CompositcE), a native of Europe, vchere 
it is also extensively cultivated. The tap root is spindle-shaped, sparingly 
branched, while fresh, fleshy with a milky juice, after drying, shriveled, 
hard, horny, on the outer surface brown, and often spirally wrinkled. 




CHICORY. 439 

Cross sections examined under a lens show the radiating pnioem groups, 
the xylem elements with broad lumens, and the narrow radiating medul- 
lary rays. 

The reserve material is largely in the form of inulin. 

HISTOLOGY. 

1. The Cork (Fig. 340) tissue consists of a few layers of rather flat 
cells, with thin brown walls. In surface view they are often ill-defined. 

2. Cortex (Fig. 341). The parenchymatous ground tissue contains 
numerous branching and anastomosing latex tubes 
{sell) 6-10 p. broad, with granular contents, which 
are especially conspicuous after staining. Inulin 
occurs in the parenchyma, but being soluble in 
water, is evident only in mounts of alcoliol material, 
in wliich it forms sphaero-crystals. 

3. Bast (Fig. 341). The sieve tubes {s) are dis- 
tinguished from the latex tubes by their occur- 
rence in bundles, the absence of branches, and the 

11 f 1 • 1 TVT • 1 1 Fig. 340. Chicory (Chi- 

callus ot the sieve plates. Neither the cortex nor cormm intybus). Cork 
the bast contains any sclerenchyma elements what- ^l^^^'^ '^lie^°^ ^X^6o" 
ever. (Moeller.) 

4. Wood (Fig. 342). The most conspicuous elements of the root 
are the vessels {g) made up of short (usually less than 200 fi), moderately 
broad (usually 20-50 /i) members, with diagonal, porous or non-porous 
cross walls. The side walls are characterized by numerous moderately 
elongated transverse pores. Usually the vessels are in radial rows or 
in groups, seldom isolated. Fuchsin stains them an intense red. 

Of less diagnostic value are the thickly porous parenchyma cells and 
the rather thin- walled wood fibers (/), with diagonal clefts. The narrow 
medullary rays consist of one or two (rarely three) rows of cells. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Chicory as used in coffee is in irregular, soft, deep brown grains, 
with a sweetish taste. It sinks in water, imparting to it a yellow-brown 
coloration. The important elements are the vessels (Fig. 342, g) consisting 
of short joints, with moderately elongated, transversely arranged pores, 
and the branching latex tubes (Fig. 341, sch) with granular contents. In 
some fragments one finds numerous vessels, in others numerous latex tubes 
in a mass of brown parenchyma. 



440 



ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS. 



Common adulterants are the roots of dandelion, carrot, beet, and 
turnip, as well as cereal matter. Dandelion (p. 441) and carrot (p. 418) 
are distinguished by the elongated narrow pores of the vessels. The 




sell S 

Fig. 341. Chicory. Bark of root in radial 
section, rp cortex parenchyma; sch latex 
tubes; s sieve tube; bp bast parenchyma; 
m medullary rays. Xi6o. (Moeller.) 



Fig. 342. Chicory. Wood of root in 
tangential section, g pitted vessels 
with q2i perforation; lip wood pa- 
renchyma; Zwood fibers; m medul- 
lary ray. Xi6o. (Moeller.) 



former root, like chicory, contains latex tubes. The vessels of the white 
turnip (p. 419) have pores similar to those of chicory; latex tubes, how- 
ever, are lacking. Unusually broad meshes characterize the vessels of 
the beet (p. 417). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Greenish (14); Hanausek, T. F. (10, 16); 
Hassall(i9); Leach (25); Mace (26); Moeller (29); Planchon et Collin (34) ; Tschirch 
u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (14, 45). 

See also Bibliography of Coffee, pp. 436-438. 



DANDELION. 

The root of the common dandelion {Leontodon Taraxacum L., order 
Compositce) is often mixed with chicory. It is thicker and more branched 
than the latter, and has a more even fracture. The bark is white, with 
delicate concentric rings; the wood yellow, without rays. 



DANDELION. 



441 



HISTOLOGY. 

The bark elements (Fig. 343) are practically the same as those of 
chicory. The concentric rings are only evident in cross section. 

More characteristic is the structure 
xof the wood (Fig. 344). The vessels 
{g) are irregularly distributed, not sep- 
arated by the medullary rays into distinct 
groups. They are somewhat broader 
(up to 80 [x) than those of chicory, and 
have much longer pores, resembling those 
of scalariform vessels. Less noteworthy 
is the absence of wood fibers, as these 





Fig. 343. Dandelion {Leontodon 
Taraxacum). Bark of root in longi- 
tudinal section showing latex tubes. 

(TSCHIRCH.) 



Fir,. 344. Dandelion. Wood of root in longi- 
tudinal section, g reticulated vessels with qu 
perforation; hp wood parenchyma; m medul- 
lary ray. X160. (MOELLER.) 



are not easily found in chicory. The reserve material exists largely as 
inulin, which in alcohol material forms sphsero-crystals. 



DIAGNOSIS. 

The greater length of the pores in the vessels (Fig. 344 g) serves to 
distinguish this root from chicory. Latex tubes (Fig. 343) are present in 
both roots. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 



See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Moeller (29, 32); Planchon at Collin (34); 
Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Vogl (44, 45). 



442 ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS. 

COCOA BEAN. 

Chocolate and Cocoa are products of the "beans" or seeds of several 
small trees, natives of tropical America, of which Theohroma Cacao L. 
(order Sterculiacea) is by far the most important. The value of cocoa 
beans was known to the aborigines, especially the Aztecs of Mexico and 
Peru, who prepared from them beverages and foods. They were brought 
to the notice of Europeans by Cortez and other explorers, but were not 
extensively imported into Europe until the seventeenth century, about 
the time tea and coffee were introduced from the East. Theobroma 
(food of the Gods), the generic name assigned by Linnaeus, suggests the 
high esteem with which people in his day regarded the seed. At present 
the world's supply comes chiefly from Venezuela, Guiana, Ecuador, 
Brazil, Trinidad, Cuba, Mexico, and other regions bordering on the 
Gulf of Mexico, being gathered in these regions from both wild and 
cultivated trees, and also to some extent from Java, Ceylon, Africa and 
other parts of the Old World, where the tree has been successfully culti- 
vated. Cocoa trees with their large dark-green leaves and clusters of 
fragrant red blossoms are among the most beautiful objects of the 
Tropics, and the fruit, borne on the trunk and old wood of the tree, is a 
never ending source of wonder to travelers. 

The yellow or brown cocoa fruit is from 12-18 cm. long, from 5-9 
cm. wide, and has 10 ridges passing from the base to the apex, giving 
the surface a melon-like appearance (Fig. 345, I and 77). It contains 
from 35 to 75 seeds in 5 rows, embedded in a mucilaginous substance. 

The seeds after being removed from the fruit are dried at once in 
some localities, but the better grades are first subjected to a fermenta- 
tion process, which destroys certain bitter and acrid constituents. 

Cocoa beans (Fig. 345, III-VI) as found on the market consist of the 
anatropous seeds, often with more or less of the pulpy inner pericarp 
adhering. They are irregularly ellipsoidal, 15-30 mm. long, somewhat 
flattened, and vary from reddish brown to dark brown in color. The 
hilum at the broader end and the chalaza at the narrower end are con- 
nected by the raphe, which runs along one of the narrow sides and divides 
into numerous branches at the chalaza. The so-called "shell," consist- 
ing of spermoderm with portions of the inner pericarp adhering to the 
outer surface and the perisperm to the inner surface, is thin and brittle, 
readily breaking away from the cotyledons. There is no endosperm, 
the reserve material being entirely in the chocolate-colored embryo con* 



COCOA BEAN. 



443 



sisting of two thick and curiously folded cotyledons and a hard radicle 
about one-third the length of the seed situated at the hilum end. On 
crushing the seed the radicle separates and the cotyledons break into 




Fig. 345. Cocoa (Theobroma Cacao). I entire fruit, Xi; IT fruit in cross section. Ill 

seed (cocoa bean), natural size; IV seed deprived of sperm oderm; V seed in longitu- 
dinal section, showing radicle (germ); VI seed in cross section. (Winton.) 

angular pieces known as cocoa nibs, from which are prepared the choco- 
late and cocoa of commerce. 

Over 50 per cent of the dry embryo consists of fat, the remaining 
constituents being starch, proteids, theobromin, caffein, a tannin sub- 
stance known as cocoa red, and other substances in smaller amount. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Cocoa beans, obtainable from any manufacturer of cocoa products, 
are suitable for microscopic study. Transverse sections are conveniently 
cut dry, depending on subsequent treatment with reagents to swell out 
the tissues. If sections of the shell are soaked for a few minutes in 
Javelle water, the collapsed cells, particularly those of the endocarp and 
the outer epidermis of the spermoderm, assume their normal form and the 
tissues, after washing in dilute acetic acid, are suitably cleared for stain- 
ing with safranin or some other dye. Sections of the cotyledons are first 
freed from fat by a suitable solvent and afterwards mounted either in 
glycerine or water. 

Pericarp. Adhering to the surface of most grades of beans is a thin 
coat consisting of the cells of the inner layers of the mesocarp or fruit 
pulp and the endocarp. 



444 



ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS. 



1. Mesocarp (Fig. 346, mes). The cells are elongated, often branching, 
with large intercellular spaces. On soaking in water they become slimy 
and, together with the endocarp, separate easily from the spermoderm. 

2. The Endocarp (Figs. 346 and 347, end) is made up of narrow elon- 
gated cells running transversely or diagonally about the seed and forming 
the so-called cross-cell layer. These cells are about 15 // wide and often 
reach a length of 200-300 //. 

Spermoderm. i. The Outer Epidermis (Figs. 346 and 347, ep), con- 
sisting of longitudinally elongated, polygonal cells (30-50 /z broad and 




Fig. 346. Cocoa. Cross section of outer portion of bean, mcs inner layers of mesocarp; 
end endocarp; spermoderm consists of ep outer epidermis, muc mucilage cells, p spongy 
parenchyma, st stone cells and Ip nutritive layer; A^ perisperm consists of epidermal 
and obliterated layers; C cotyledon. (Tschirch.) 



up to 200 11 long), is clearly seen in surface preparations, underlying 
the cross cells of the endocarp. Owing to their collapsed condition, this 
layer is not distinct in sections mounted in water, but on treatment with 
Javelle water, the cells swell to their natural size and the thick cuticle 
becomes evident. 



COCOJ BE/IN. 



445 



2. Mucilage Cells (Fig. 346, muc) underlie the epidermis, forming 
what at first sight appears to be a broad hyaline coat. They do not, 
however, form a continuous coat, but a series of pockets separated by 
tissues of the third layer. Safranin stains the layer in cross section a 
clear rose color and makes the radial walls more distinct. 

3. Spongy Parenchyma (p). Numerous layers of spongy paren- 
chyma cells, through which pass the bundles of the raphe and its branches, 
form the third coat. Narrow spiral vessels readily separating from 
the other elements, characterize the bundles. 

4. Slone Cells (Fig. 346, st; Fig. 349, d). The cells of the next layer 
are thickened on the inner and radial walls. In surface view they are 
polygonal, often elongated, varying up to 25 /i long. The double walls 
are about 5 fi thick. Here and there groups of these cells are not thick- 




FlG. 347. Cocoa. Outer elements of shell. FiG. 348. Cocoa. Cross section of outer 

ep epidermis of spermoderm; end endocarp portion of cotyledon, showing hairs 

(cross cells); p parenchyma of mesocarp. (Mitscherlichian bodies) and starch 

X160. (MoELLER.) parenchyma. (Moeller.) 

ened at all, permitting, according to Tschirch and Oesterlc, an exchange 
of cell- liquids. 

5. Nutritive Layer (Fig. 346, Ip). Several rows of cells of this layer 
contain in earlier stages of development cell-contents which later are 
employed in building up the seed, leaving at maturity only obliterated 
tissues. 



446 ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS. 



6. The Inner Epidermis is indistinct. 

Perispenn. (Fig. 346, A^). The "silver" coat, formerly regarded 
as endosperm but later shown by Tschirch and Oesterle to be perisperm, 
envelops the seed and penetrates between the folds of the cotyledons. 

1. Epidermis A single layer of polygonal cells (15-30 jx) with distinct 
walls (double walls 3 jx) forms a coat similar to the aleurone cells of 
many seeds. The cell contents are yellow or white and consist of 
fatty matter in aggregates, and protein. This layer does not penetrate 
between the cotyledons. 

2. Obliterated Cells comprise the remainder of the perisperm. They 
contain fat in numerous large blade-shaped crystals, often in fan-like 
clusters, and also dense sphero-aggregates. 

Embryo. The bulk of the seed consists of the fleshy cotyledons con- 
taining over half their dry weight of fat. 

1. The Epidermis (Figs. 348 and 349) is made up of polygonal cells 
and remarkable several-celled hairs {tr) named in honor of their discoverer 
" Mitscherlichian bodies." These latter consist of a single row of cells 
near the base, but expand at the outer end into a club-shaped body often 
several cells broad. Vogl has rightly observed that these hairs occur less 
often on the surface of the cotyledon adjoining the perisperm than in 
the folds, and Tschirch and Oesterle, that they are still more abundant 
on the radicle. The perisperm, particularly that portion within the 
folds of the cotyledons, often has these hairs adhering to its inner surface. 
Both the hairs and the other epidermal cells contain small brown bodies, 
which, according to Vogl, are colored blood-red by chloral, olive-brown 
by ferric chloride, and bright yellow by ammonia, the latter reagent also 
causing the grains to swell. These reactions are not always decisive. 

2. Ground Tissue (Fig. 348). The cells in the interior of the cotyle- 
dons either contain starch and aleurone grains embedded in fat, or a 
pigment varying from violet to brown in color. Fat, the chief constituent 
of the embryo, occurs either in rosettes of needle-shaped crystals or in 
compact masses. Starch is present in amounts varying up to 10 per 
cent, the rounded grains (4-12 !j), each with a distinct hilum, resembling 
closely those of allspice and cinnamon. The grains occur singly, in 
pairs, or in triplets. They stain slowly with iodine, even after the re- 
moval of the fat. The aleurone grains are usually smaller than the 
starch grains and contain several globoids, but larger grains with crystal- 
loids are also found here and there. Both the starch and aleurone grains, 
the latter being the less abundant, are clearly differentiated by extracting 



COCOA BEAN. 



447 



sections with ether and mounting in chlorzinc iodine. Scattered among 
these cells are the pigment cells containing a substance varying from 
violet to brown in color known as cocoa red, which, together with theo- 
bromin, caffein and dextrose, is formed by the action of an enzyms 
on a glucoside originally present in the bean. Usually this substance 
becomes blood-red with concentrated sulphuric acid, gray-blue with 
ammonia, greenish -yellow with caustic soda, and olive with ferric chloride, 
although the color reactions vary greatly in different samples, owing 

A B 




Fig. 34g. Cocoa. A perisperm (silver coat) consisting of epidermis and parenchyma: 
A' and / crystals; tr adhering hairs (Mitscherlichian bodies) from epidermis of cotyledon. 
B elements of cocoa powder, showing c cotyledon tissues with fat cells and pigment 
cells, also p parenchyma, sp spiral vessels and d stone cell layer of shell (spermoderm). 

Xl6o. (MOELLER.) 

possibly to lack of uniformity in the process of fermentation, roasting, 
etc. Tschirch and Oesterle describe methods for separating theobromin 
gold chloride and theobromin silver nitrate, but these, although of 
scientific interest, are of little value in diagnosis. Caffein also occurs in 
small amounts in the embryo, but its presence is best demonstrated by 
purely chemical means. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Plain Chocolate. The first stages in the manufacture of both choco- 
late and cocoa are the same. 

After removing stones, chips and other impurities, the beans are 
roasted, thus developing a desirable flavor and facilitating the processes 



448 /lLKALOIDy4L PRODUCTS. 

of separation from the shells and grinding. The beans are then crushed 
by machinery and separated from the shells. In some factories the hard 
"germs" (radicles) are also remQved. 

The broken cotyledons, free from shells, known as "cocoa nibs," 
are next ground in the chocolate mill. The heat of grinding melts the 
fat which makes up about half the weight of the nibs, and the ground 
product runs out of the mill as a thin paste. This paste, after cooling 
in moulds, is plain or unsweetened chocolate, also known as cocoa mass. 

The most characteristic tissues of the embryo are the multi-cellular 
bodies of the epidermis (Fig, 349), but these are not numerous and are 
largely destroyed in grinding. Of chief value in identification are the starch 
grains (Fig. 348), which, although much like the grains of allspice and cin- 
namon, do not resemble those of any common adulterant. The violet or 
brown contents of the pigment cells are also of some diagnostic impor- 
tance, though the reactions are often misleading. Tissues of the spermo- 
derm (Fig. 347) are exceedingly rare in cocoa products made from care- 
fully shelled beans. Among the adulterants with definite microscopic 
characters found in plain chocolate are wheat flour, maize starch, peanut 
meal, peas, acorns, arrowroot, and cocoa shells. Other adulterants 
which can be identified only by chemical and physical methods are 
foreign fats, m.'neral make-weights, iron salts, various pigments, and 
coal-tar dyes. 

Siveet Chocolate is prepared by mixing pulverized sugar and flavors 
with the warm chocolate paste before moulding. Vanilla beans (or 
artificial vanillin) and cinnamon are most commonly employed as flavor- 
ing materials, less often cloves, nutmegs, mace, cardamoms, and Peru 
balsam. The adulterants are those noted under plain chocolate. 

Cocoa is obtained by removing a portion of the fat (cocoa butter), 
from warm cocoa mass by pressure and reducing the residue to a powder, 
with or without addition of vanilla flavor. 

Dutch Process, or "Soluble" Cocoa, is cocoa treated with an alkali, 
usually soda or ammonia, to hinder the fat from collecting on the sur- 
face of the beverage prepared from it. The microscopic elements are 
not altered by this treatment. Various starchy preparations and oil- 
seed products such as are noted under chocolate are used as adulterants. 

Cocoa Shells, obtained in large quantities in the manufacture of 
chocolate and cocoa, are used to some extent in the preparation of a 
beverage, for the manufacture of theobromin, and in mixed cattle foods, 
but are most commonly added to cocoa products or spices as an adulterant. 



COCOA BEAN. 



449 



The striking histological elements are the cross cells or inner epider- 
mis (Fig. 347, end) of the pericarp, and the underlying tissues of the 
spermoderm, especially the outer epidermis {ep), the numerous narrow 
spiral vessels of the bundles, and the stone cells. The shells contain a 
higher percentage of crude fiber than the cotyledons, but much less fat, 
starch, and theobromin. 

Compound Cocoa Products. Zipperer gives formulas or analyses of 
seventy-four preparations of chocolate or cocoa with other materials. 
He states, however, that this list is not complete and does not contain 
any of the medicinal chocolates. Some of the ingredients named are 
oatmeal, barley meal, malt, malt extract, wheat flour, potato flour, rice 
peas, peanuts, acorns, cola nuts, sago, arrowroot, Iceland moss, o-um 
Arabic, salep, dried meat, meat extract, peptones, milk powder, plas- 
mon (casein), eggs, saccharin, vanilla, various spices, and inorganic 
salts. Of the products named, only those of vegetable origin can usuallv 
be identified under the microscope. 

Malt Chocolate and Malt Cocoa more often contain malt extract than 
ground malt, only the latter being distinguishable under the microscope. 

Milk Chocolate, a popular mixture of sweet chocolate and milk powder, 
has no distinctive microscopic characters but "Plasmon Chocolate," 
"Plasmon Cocoa" and various similar preparations show under the 
microscope flakes of ceasin (Plasmon), which may be tested with reagents 
and dyes. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Blyth (5); Fluckiger (11); Greenish 
(14); Hanausek, T. F. (16, 48); Hassall (19); Leach (25); Mace (26); Meyer, A. 
(28); ISIoeller (29, 30, 31, 32); Planchon et Collin (34); Schimper (37); Tschirch 
u. Oesterle (40); VilHers et Collin (42); Vogl (43, 45); Weigmann (10). 
Bastings: Starch Grains in the Different Commercial Varieties of Cocoa Beans. 

Amer. Journ. Pharm. 1894, 66, 369. 
Beckurts und Hartwich: Beitriige zur chemischen und pharmakognostischen Kent- 

niss der Cacaobohnen. Arch. Pharm. 1890, 230, 589. 
Bernhard: Ueber Cacao und dessen Praparate. Chem. Ztg. 1888, 12, 445. 1889 

13, 32. 
Bernhard: Ueber die Untersuchung von Cacao und Chocolade. Vers. Schw. Chem. 

12. April, 1890. 
Beythien: Casseler Haferkakao. Jahresber. chem. Unters.-Amt. Dresden, 1900, 10. 
Beythien und Hempel: Chokoladenmehle. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussra. 1901 

4, 23. 
Coster, Hoorn und Mazure: Falsifications observees en Holland. Pvcv. internat. 

falsificat. 1887-88, 1, 161. 



45° ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS. 

Elsner: Rep. analyt. Chem. 1884, 370; 1885, 5, 128, 211. 

Filsinger: Die Untersuchung der Kakaofabrikate auf Gehalt an Kakaoschalen. 
Ztschr. offentl. Chem. 1899, o, 27. 

Fischer und Grunhagen: Untersuchung des Kakao und der Chokolade auf Kakao- 
schalen. Jahresber. chem. Unters.-Amt. Breslau, 1899-1900, 34. 

Fischer: Nachweis von Kakaoschalen. Jahresber. chem. Unters-Amt. Breslau, 
1901-02, 27. 

Hager: Ueber Eichelkakao und Chokolade. Pharm. Ztg. 1888, 33, 511. 

Hanausek, T. F.: Mikroskopische Untersuchung eines hoUiindischen Eichelcacaos. 
Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1887, 1, 247. 

Hanausek, T. F.: Beitrage zur Histochemie der Cacaosamen. Apoth.-Ztg. 1894, 

145- 
Hartwich: Ueber die Pigmentzellen des Cacaosamens. Arch. Pharm. 1887, 2.>, 958. 
Hartwich: Zur Nachweisung fremder Starkemehle in der Chokolade. Chem. Ztg. 

1888, 12, 375. 
Lagerheim: Nachweis von Kakaoschalen. Svensk Kemisk Tidskrift, 1901. 
Lagerheim: Om den mikroskopiska undersokningen af kakao och chokolad. Svensk 

Farmaceutisk Tidskrift 1902, No. 9. 
Legler: Cellulosegehaltes der Kakaobohnen. Rep. analyt. Chem. 1884, 4, 345. 
Legler: Zur mikroskopischen Untersuchung der Cacaobohnen. 14-17 Jahresber. 

Chem. Centralstelle. Dresden, 1886-8S. 
Mansfeld: Kakao-Ersatzmittel. Jahresber. Unters. allg. osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1901-02, 

U, 5- 

MiCHAELis: Eichelkakao, Eichelchokolade. Pharm. Ztg. 1888, 33, 568. 
Mitscherlich: Der Cacao und Die Chocolade. Berlin, 1859. 
NoTHNAGEL: Untersuchung von Getreide-Kakao. Apoth.-Ztg. 1900, 15, 181. 
Payen: Action de I'iode sur I'amidon du cacao. Jour, pharm. chim. 1862, 41, 367. 
Pennetier: Recherche de la farines de ble dans le chocolat. Jour, pharm. chim. 

1887, 15, 141. 
Pfister: Eine neue Chokoladenfalschung. Forschber. Lebensm. Hyg. Pharmkgn. 

1894, 1, 543. 
Spath: Verfalschung von Cacao. Forschber. Lebensm. Hyg. 1894, 1, 344. 
Thiel: Zur Histologic und Physiologic der Kakaosamen. Forschber. Lebensm. Hyg. 

1894, 1, 219. 
TiCHOMiROW: Ueber die Cacaocultur auf Ceylon. Pharm. Ztschr. f. Russl. 1892, 

31, 260. 

Trojanowsky: Beitr. z. pharmakogn. u. chem. Kenntniss des Cacaos. Inaug.-Diss. 

Dorpat, 1875. 
Tschirch: Untersuchungen der Eichel-Cacaosorten des Handels. Pharm. Ztg. 1886, 

32, 190. 

Tschirch: Ueber den anatomischen Bau des Cacaosamens. Arch. Pharm. 1887, 25, 

605. 
Tschirch: Entwicklungsgeschichtliche Studien. Schw. Woch. Chem. Pharm. 1897, 

35, No. 17. 
Welmans: Zur Untersuchung der Kakaofabrikate auf ihren Gehalt an Kakaoschalen. 

Ztschr. offentl. Chem. 1899, 5, 479. 



GUAR/1NA. 



451 



Zipperer: Ueber den Weith der mikroskopischen Untersuchung bci Bestimmung 
fremden Starkemehls in Chokolade. Chem. Ztg. 1888, 12, 26. • 

Zipperer: Beitrage zur Mikrochemie des Thees und des Cacao. VII. Vers. d. freien 
Vereinig. bayr. Chem. Speyer, 1888. 

QUARANA. 



The seed of PauUinia sorbilis Mart, (order SapindacetB), like coffee 
and the kola nut, contains caffein, and is used in Brazil as a stimulant. 
The dried paste in the form of dark brown, 
sausage-hke cylinders, is used in medi- 
cine. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The epidermis (Fig. 350) of the spermo- 
derm consists of characteristic palisade cells 





Fig. 350. Guarana {PauUinia sorbilis). 
Palisade epidermis of spermoderra 
in surface view. (Moeller.) 



Fig. 351. Guarana. Epidermis 
and parenchyma of cotyledon. 
(Moeller.) 



with thick walls. The embryo (Fig. 351) contains small starch grains 
of the allspice type. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

In the commercial product the starch grains are more or less dis- 
torted, owing to the heat employed in drying. Although made from 
the shelled seeds, fragments of the palisade cells are always present. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Moeller (32); Vogl (45). 



452 ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS. 

KOLA NUT. 

The seeds of Cola acuminata R. Br. have long been used by the natives 
of West Africa as a stimulant, and have also been introduced into other 
countries as a drug. They contain both caffein and theobromin. The 
commercial product consists of the dried cotyledons, which resemble 
somewhat those of a Spanish chestnut, except that they are of a dark- 
brown color. 

The starch grains are ovate or reniform, up to 30 n long, and have 
an elongated hilum. They are quite like the starch grains of legumes. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Vogl (45). 

TEA. 

Tea is the leaf of a shrub {Camellia TJiea Link, order Ternstrcemiacece), 
which since time immemorial has been extensively cultivated in China 
and Japan, also more recently in India (Assam), Ceylon, and Java. Its 
culture in South Carolina, although still in the experimental stage, bids 
fair to become an important industry. 

The numerous kinds of tea owe their difference in excellence and 
trade value to differences in the mother plant on the one hand, and to 
the degree of ripeness and method of preparation on the other. As 
a rule only the leaf buds and the youngest leaves, not the flowers, are 
gathered. What are known in commerce as "flowers" are the gray, 
silky-hairy leaf buds. 

Black and green tea owe their peculiar characters to the method of 
preparation. In the first the chlorophyl is destroyed, in the latter more 
or less preserved. 

Brick tea consists of large leaves not suitable for the preparation of 
black and green tea, ends of branches and other refuse, compressed into 
blocks. It is consumed almost entirely by the Asiatic nomads. 

In China tea designed for export is often perfumed by mixing with 
it fragrant flowers (of Aurantiacece, Osmanthus jragrans, Jasminum, 
Aglaja odorata, Gardenia florida, Chloranthus inconspicuus), which are 
removed after they have wilted. The bottom of the chest is sometimes 
covered with flowers. 

Tea leaves vary more than is commonly stated. They are narrow 



TEA. 



453 



or half as broad as long, pointed or nearly spatulate, serrate or nearly 
entire, entirely smooth or hairy on the under side, more or less leathery. 
Grown to full maturity they often reach lo cm., rarely 15 cm., in length, 
but as picked for the market they range from the length of the little finger 
down to the tiny leaves of the buds. 

The following characters are common to all tea leaves: the firm, 
rather thick texture; the glossy upper surface; the short stem into which 




^ft 



f.,> 



^ 






\ ■ 



\ 



Fig. 352. Tea {Camellia Thea). Leaf, 
natural size. (Moeller.) 



..X 



Fig. 353. Tea. Fragment of leaf treated 
with chloral hydrate, showing tooth, veins, 
crystal rosettes, and stone cells. Somewhat 
enlarged. (Schimper.) 



the base of the leaf tapers; the thick margins, rolled a little towards 
the inner surface, with cartilaginous teeth; the veins which branch from 
the midrib at angles usually greater than 45°, and at some distance from 
the margin form loops uniting adjoining ribs (Fig. 352). The teeth 
(Fig. 353) on the margin of the leaf are shrunken multicellular glands 
which break off readily from old leaves. 

Tea fruit (Fig. 354), consisting of the pericarp with calyx and 
peduncle attached, resembles cloves. The pericarp is globular or trian- 
gular, and has three cells, each containing a single seed. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Microscopic mounts are prepared after soaking or boiling with water. 
The Upper Epidermis (Fig. 355) consists of small (50 //) cells with 
slightly wavy walls, without stomata or hairs. 



454 



ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS. 



Mesophyl (Fig. 357). The chlorophyl parenchyma adjoining the 
upper epidermis is made up of palisade cells which in surface view are 
circular in outline (Fig. 355, p); that adjoining the lower epidermis is 




Fig. 354. Tea Fruit, Natural size. (Winton.) Fig. 355. Tea. Upper epidermis 
' of leaf and p group of palisade 

cells, seen from below. Xi6o. 

(MOELLER.) 

spongy, with large star-shaped branching cells (Fig. 356, m). Large 
colorless stone cells or idioblasts (Fig. 357; Fig. 358, st) which are the most 
characteristic elements of the tea leaf, occur here and there in young 
leaves and in considerable numbers in mature leaves. They form as it 
were braces holding apart the epidermal layers. They are extremely 




Fig. 356. Tea. Lower epidermis of leaf with h hair and sp stoma, and m spongy parenchyma 
of mesophyl, seen from below. X i6o. (Moeller.) 

variable in form and size, but are usually elongated (up to 150 fx), 
broadened at the ends, and have simple and forked branches. The 
thickness of the porous walls often exceeds the breadth of the cavity. 



TEA. 



455 



Crystal rosettes occur in considerable numbers. 

The Lower Epidermis (Fig. 356) consists of large (70 //) irregular 
cells with wavy contour, among which are numerous large (40-60 n) 
broadly elliptical stomata surrounded usually by 3-4 accompanying cells. 

The hairs found on this epidermis, like the idioblasts, are highly 
characteristic. On old leaves they occur sparingly or not at all, and 
their scars, owing to the growth of the neighboring cells, are also seldom 




Fig. 357. Tea. Cross section of leaf showing epidermal cells, palisade cells, fibro-vascular 
bundle, spongy parenchyma with crystal rosettes, and large stone cell. (Mez.) 

evident. On young leaves, however, they form a dense pubescence. 
They are unicellular, thick-walled, often over i mm. long, and are usually 
geniculate near the base, thus causing them to lie flat on the surface of 
the leaf. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

After heating to boiling in water the leaves may be spread out and 
examined. Even quite small fragments can be recognized by their tex- 
ture, venation, dentation and other macroscopic characters. The chief 
microscopic elements of value in diagnosis are the epidermal cells, the 
geniculate hairs and the idioblasts. 

Tea Adulteration. Gross adulteration, such as the addition of 
exhausted leaves, foreign leaves and mineral make-weights, is seldom 
practiced at the present time. Low-grade teas often contain tea stems, 



456 



/ILKALOID/IL PRODUCTS. 



and sometimes tea fruit. Facing, although objectionable, is not usually 
regarded as an adulteration.^ 

Exhausted Tea. Leaves which have been used once for the prepara- 
tion of the beverage are said to be collected in England, Russia, and 
China, impregnated with catechu or caramel, and prepared in imitation 
of genuine tea. This worthless product has the same microscopic 
appearance as genuine tea, but can often be detected by chemical means, 




Fig. 358. Tea. Tissues of leaf isolated by warming in alkali and squeezing with cover 
glass, g spiral vessels of nerves; p chlorophyl parenchyma; st stone cells; h hairs. 

X160. (MOELLER.) 

particularly determinations of hot-water extract, tannin, total and water- 
soluble ash. 

Tea Fruit. Soltsien has reported several cases of adulteration with 
the dried fruit. Winton found in a sample sold in Connecticut 11.5 per 
cent of this adulterant. 

Tea Stems. Tea often contains a small amount of stems as an acci- 
dental impurity. A considerable amount indicates adulteration. 

'^ Lie Tea''^ consists of tea leaves and other refuse made into lumps 
with starch-paste. These lumps fall apart on soaking in water. 

Mineral Make-weights, including soapstone, gypsum, iron dust, and 
sand, are detected by chemical analysis. 

Facing. A large part of the green tea and much of the black tea is 
"faced," or coated, to impart a gloss and an attractive color. Among 
the materials employed in facing green tea are Prussian blue (ferric ferro- 



* Except for facing, the tea on the American market at the present time is seldom adul- 
terated (A. L. W.). 



TEA. 457 

cyanide), indigo, turmeric, soapstone, and gypsum. Black tea is fre- 
quently coated with plumbago. 

Leach describes simple methods for detecting several of these materials 
by microscopic examination: Plumbago is evident by its bright glossy 
appearance; Prussian blue, by the transparent light blue, and indigo by 
the greenish-blue particles. The color of Prussian blue is discharged by 
sodium hydroxide, while- that of indigo is not. The detached particles 
of coloring matter often rise to the surface when leaves are shaken in 
hot water, and may be floated on a slide for microscopic examination. 
Prussian blue may be chemically detected in the sediment as above 
obtained by dissolving in hot alkali, acidifying with hydrochloric acid 
and then adding ferric chloride. A blue color is indicative of the ferric 
ferrocyanide. 

Foreign Leaves, widely different in form and size from the tea leaf, 
can be used as adulterants provided they are not too hairy or too strongly 
scented. The adulterator selects not only leaves which outwardly resemble 
tea leaves, of which there are an abundance, but, trusting to the indif- 
ference of the consumer, uses leaves of the oak, poplar, maple, plane tree, 
and others, which do not have the slightest resemblance to tea leaves, and 
which the layman, if he would take the trouble to spread out the spent 
leaves, would at once either identify, or at least recognize as foreign. 
Most of these leaves on close inspection show peculiarities in texture, 
venation, dentation, and other characters, thus rendering microscopic 
examination superfluous. Only in cases where absolute proof is required, 
especially when the leaves are in fragments, is it necessary to resort 
to microscopic examination. The leaves described on pp. 458-483 do not 
include all that may be used as adulterants of tea, but only those which 
resemble tea leaves in form or else are most commonly used either as 
adulterants or substitutes. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bell (i); Berg (3); Blyth (5); Greenish 
(14); Hanausek, T. F. (10, 16); Hassall (19); Leach (25); Mace (26); Moeller (29, 
30, 31, 32); Planchon et Collin (34); Schimper (37); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers 
et Collin (42); Vogl (43, 45). 
Anonymous: Teefalschung in Russland. Schw. Woch. Chem. Pharm. 1892, 142. 

Weidenroschenblatter als Tee. Pharm. Ztg. Russland, 1875. 
Batalin: Ein neues Ersatzmittel fiir Tee. Indbltt. 1888, 25, No. 14, 59. 
BORKOWSKI: Du faux the russe. Rev. int. falsific. 1896, 9, 131. 
Brunotte: De la determination histologique des falsifications du The. These Ec. de 

Ph. de Nancy, 1883. 



458 ^LKALOIDAL PRODUCTS. 

Collin : Du the chinois et de quelques-une de ses succedanes. Journ. pharm. chim. 

1900, 11, 15. 
DRAGENDORrF: Falschungen in Russland. P. Tr. (3), 1048. 
Hanausek, T. F.: Ueber den kaukasischen Tee, nebst Beitragen zur vergleichenden 

Anatomic der Vacciniumblatter. Chem. Ztg. 1897, 21, 115. 
LoRENz: Tee aus Slattern der kaukasischen Preiselbeere. Apoth. Ztg. 1902, 16, 

694. 
LuBELSKi: Ueber Kultur und Falschungen des Tees. Rep. Fals. intern. 3, 88. 
Medhurst: Consular Report. Drog. Ztg. 5 u. Jahresber. Fortschr. Pharm. 1879, 43. 
Meyer, Ad.: Anat. charakt. off. Blatter u. Krauter. Halle, 1882. 
MoLiscH: Histochemie. Jena, 1891. 
Netolitzky: Dikotyledonblatter. Wien, 1905. 

Riche et Collin: Falsification du the en Chine. Jour, pharm. chim. 1890, 21, 6. 
Riche: Gefalschter Tee. Chem. Ztg. 1899, 13, Rep. 19, 155. 
SOLTSIEN: Verfalschung des Tees mit Teefriichten. Pharm. Ztg. 1894, 39, 347. Ztschr 

offentl. Chem. 1902, 8, 254. 
Stackmann: Kaukasischer Tee aus Kutais. Ztschr. anal. Chem. 1895, 34, 49. 
TiCHOMiROw : Zur Frage iiber die Expertise von gef alschtem und gebrauchtem Tee 

Pharm. Ztschr. f. Russl. 1890, 29, No. 29-40. 
Winton: The Adulteration of Tea with Tea Fruit. Conn. Agr. Exp. Stat. Rep. 1901, 

183. 

QROnWELL LEAVES. 

The leaves of gromwell (Liihospermum officinale L., order Bor- 
raginacece) are entire, sessile, up to 8 cm. long and scarcely 15 mm. broad 
(Fig. 359). The veins are few, form sharp angles with 
the midrib, and near the margins anastomose, forming 
flattened loops. The leaves have rough hairs on both 
sides which are evident on passing the fingers from tip 
to base, and are seen under a lens to spring from rounded 
humps. 

The Epidermis on the upper side (Fig. 360) consists 

of irregularly polygonal cells, on the lower side (Fig. 

361) of thin- walled cells with more or less wavy contour. 

The stiff, somewhat curved, sharp-pointed, warty hairs 

are 600 n or more long, and are often 40 /< broad at the 

base. They have thickened walls, and contain cysto- 

if^' liths or concretions of calcium carbonate, which are 

Fig. 359. Gromwell especially well developed in the retort-shaped bases. 

fJlS''"T"af Cystoliths are also present in the cells of the upper 

natural size, epidermis. Small stomata, 30 /< long, occur in the upper 

(MOELLER.I .... , 

epidermis m great numbers. 
Gromwell leaves prepared like black tea are sold unmixed in 



IVILLOIV HERB LEAyES. 



459 



* — -I 




Fig. 



360. Gromwell. 
leaf. X160. 



Upper epidermis of 

(MOELLEK.) 



Fig. 361. Gromwell. Lower 
epidermis of leaf. X 160. 

(MOELLER.) 

Bohemia, and a similar product, containing the fruits as well 
as the leaves, was at one time made in Styria. The chief 
characters are the thin texture of the leaf and the rough hairs. 



WILLOW HERB LEAVES. 

The narrow-leaved willow herb {Epilohium angusti- 
folium L., ChamcBnerium angustijolium Scop., order Oeno- 
iherecB) has lanceolate, sharp-pointed leaves which are sessile 
or with short petioles, entire or sparingly toothed (Fig. 362). 
The numerous veins are at nearly right angles to the mid- 
rib, and anastomose at the border in short loops. 

Upper Epidermis. (Fig. 363.) The cells are about 50 n 
broad, with slightly wavy, thick, here and there knotty- \\3 
thickened walls. Stomata are absent, but water stomata 
occur near the apex. 

Lower Epidermis. (Fig. 364.) The cells have thinner 
and wavier walls than those of the upper epidermis, and 
are covered by a wrinkled cuticle with a finely granular de- 
posit of wax. The numerous stomata are about 30 n long 
and 20 n broad. Under each tooth is a water stomata. 
Young leaves bear along the veins unicellular, blunt, thin- Fig. 3'62. Willow 
walled, striated, mostly crooked hairs (Fig;. ^60- V^^^^ {Epiio- 

bium angusti- 

The Mesophyl contains numerous raphides (Fig. 364) folium). Leaf, 
accompanying the bundles. "SoeIeIo'' 



460 



ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS. 



Leaves of this species are used in Russia as a substitute for or an 
adulterant of tea. 

The chief characters are the thin, entire or sparingly toothed leaves with 




Fig. 363. Willow Herb. Upper epidermis Fig. 364. Willow Herb. Lower epidermis of 
of leaf. X 160. (MoELLER.) leaf, also K raphides cell and ch chloro- 

phyl cells. X160. (Moeller.) 




Fig. 365. Willow Herb. Epidermis of young leaf with hairs. (MOELLER.) 

numerous veins nearly at right angles to the midrib, the striated lower 
epidermis with wavy walls and small stomata, and the raphides. 



IVILLOIV LEAVES. 



461 



The leaves of the hairy willow herb (Epilobium hirsutum L.) are 
clasping, lanceolate, wavy-toothed, with a smooth upper and a hairy 
lower surface (Fig. 366). The pronounced branching veins form loops 
near the margins. The epidermal cells are similar to those of the foregoing 





Fig. 366. Hairy Willow Herb 
(Epilobium hirsutum). Leaf, 
natural size. (Moeller.) 



Fig. 367. Hairy Willow Herb. 
Epidermis of leaf with hair. 
(Moeller.) 



Fig. 368. Willow (5(2- 
lixsp.). Leaf, natu- 
ral size. (Moeller.) 



species, but the hairs are smooth, and many of them have characteristic 
globular heads (Fig. 367). Pointed hairs, much longer than the preceding, 
are also present, being especially abundant at the margins. 



WILLOW LEAVES. 

The willows (Salix) have long, pointed, entire or toothed, smooth or 
hairy, short-petioled, rather thick leaves. They resemble tea leaves, but 
the veins are more numerous, and they do not form loops at the margin 
(Fig. 368). 



462 



ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS 



The Epidermis (Fig. 369) is much the same on both surfaces, but on 
the upper surface is strongly cuticularized and striated. The cells are 
small, sharply polygonal or very slightly sinuous in outline. Numerous 
small (25 [x) stomata, often with two accompanying cells, occur on the 
lower epidermis. Both epidermal layers are clothed with hairs, which 
resemble those of tea, but are not geniculate. The hairs of young leaves 

A 





Fig. 369. Willow. A upper epidermis of leaf. B lower epidermis with hairs and stomata, 

X160. (MOELLEE.) 

are thin-Vv^alled, while those of full-grown leaves often have walls so strongly 
thickened as to obliterate the cavities. The marginal teeth end in multi- 
cellular glands. 

The Mesophyl contains numerous oxalate rosettes and also simple 
crystals. 

Willow leaves, according to the English consul Medhurst, are collected 
in China in great quantities, prepared like tea, and mixed with this product 
to the extent of 20 per cent. (See Bibliography of Tea, p. 458.) 

This leaf can usually be distinguished from tea by its venation. The 
characteristic microscopic elements are the thin-walled hairs and the 
four-celled stomata. The crystal rosettes of both leaves are similar, 
but simple crystals are not found in tea. 



ASH LEAVES. 

The leaflets of the odd-pinnate leaves of the ash (Fraxinus sp., order 
OleacecE), are similar to tea leaves in general outline, although they are 
often broader and more sharply toothed, and, furthermore, have very 
different venation (Fig. 370). The numerous veins, which in young 
leaves are especially well marked, anastomose near the margin, and from 



ROIVAN LEASES. 



463 



the loops arise short veinlets which usually end in the notches between 
the teeth. 

Epidermis (Fig. 371). On both sides the 
cells have sinuous walls. The lower epidermis 
bears numerous large stomata (30-40 n), with- 
out accompanying cells. Highly characteristic 
are the cuticular thickenings or folds at the 
poles of the stomata, which give the latter a 
horned appearance. Glandular hairs with 
wheel-like multicellular heads, also short one- 
to two-celled hairs with striated cuticle, occur 
on the lower epidermis. 

Mesocarp crystals are absent. 

The indescribable but highly characteristic 
thin sinuous walls of the upper epidermis, the 
elongated and horned stomata and the glandular 
hairs are positive means of distinction from tea. 

ROWAN LEAVES. 

The European rowan or mountain ash {Sor- 
biis Aiicuparia L., Pyrus Aucuparia Gaertn., 
order RosacecB), is often cultivated because of its 
scarlet berries. The odd-pinnate leaves are 
pubescent when young, nearly smooth when 
old (Fig. 372). The leaflets are lanceolate and 
irregularly serrate. The veins pass into the teeth without forming loops. 
A B 



Fig. 370. Ash {Fraxtnus 
sp.). Leaflet, natural size. 

(MOELLER.) 




-sp 



Fig. 371. Ash. A upper epidermis of leaf. B lower epidermis with sp stomata and t 
glandular hair. Xi6^. (Moellek.) 

The Epidermis (Fig. 373) of the under side is like that of the upper 



464 



ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS. 



side except that stomata are present. In outline the cells are partly 
polygonal, partly sinuous. Delicate striations mark the cuticle. The 
long, unicellular, sinuous hairs with rounded bases are characteristic. 




^^^^^^ "^^^^^^ 




Fig. 372. Rowan (Sorbus Aucnparia). 
Leaf, natural size. (Moeller.) 



Fig. 373. Rowan. Epidermis of leaf with 
stoma and hair. (Moeller.) 



MULBERRY LEAVES. 

The white and black mulberry trees (Morus alba L. and Morus nigra L., 
order Moracecs), natives of Asia, are grown for their leaves in Southern 
Europe and other silk-producing regions, and elsewhere for their fruit 
or shade. 

The leaves of the white mulberry are hght green, ovate heart-shaped, 
unequal at the base, long-petioled, nearly smooth on the upper side (Fig. 
374) ; those of the black species are dark green, heart-shaped with taper- 
ing point, regular at the base, short-petioled, with rough hairs on the 
upper side. Soft hairs occur sparingly on the under surface of both species 



MULBERRY LE/irES. 



465 



Epidermis (Figs. 375 and 376). On the upper side the cells are 
polygonal, while those of the under side are unusually small and have sin- 





FiG. 374. '\lnVoerry {Morns alba). Leaf, natural size. (Moeller.) 

uous wails. Stomata are present only on the under side. Large epidermal 
cells containing cystoliths occur on both sides, the cells about them 
forming rosettes. The hairs are unicellular, very long, thin-walled. 




Fig. 375. Mulberry. 



Section of lower epidermis of leaf sho\\dng stoma and cystolith. 

(MOELLEE.) 



smooth, more or ess sinuous, but quite rigid. Glandular hairs with a 
unicellular base and multicellular head are also present. 
The Mesophyl contains crystal rosettes. 



466 



ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS. 
COFFEE LEAVES. 



Leaves of the coffee tree (Cofjea Arahica L., order Rubiacece), like the 
seeds, contain caffein, although in smaller amount. They are used as 




Fig. 376. Mulberry. Upper epidermis of leaf (above); lower Fig. 377. Coffee {Coffea 

epidermis with hairs, stomata and cystolith (below). Arahica). Leaf, natural 

(MOELLER.) size. (AIOELLER.) 

A B 





Fig. 378. Coffee. A upper epidermis of leaf. B lower epidermis. X160, (Moeller.) 

substitutes for tea in coffee-growing countries, and their introduction 
into Europe has been suggested. 



C/IMELLIA LE/I^ES. 



467 



The leather}', smooth, shining, dark-green leaves arc elliptical, taper- 
ing gradually to a point at the apex and into the short stem at the base 
(Fig. 377)- Teeth are not present. The veins form sharp angles with 
the midrib, and anastomose with the formation of pronounced curves. 

Epidermis (Fig. 378). The cells on both sides have sinuous walls. 
On the under side large stomata (25-45 jx) to the number of 60 per sq. 
mm. are distributed in a peculiar manner among the epidermal cells. 

The Mesophyl contains crystal sand. 

The leaf is prepared for use by roasting, and is never rolled like tea. 



CAMELLIA LEAVES. 



The camellia {Camellia Japonica L., order TernstroemiacecB) grows 
native in Japan, and is cultivated as a greenhouse plant in Europe and 

America. It is closely related to tea, but the 
leaves (Fig. 379) contain no caffein. On care- 
ful examination geniculate hairs similar to 
those of tea may be found on the young 
leaves, but only on the margins. These soon 
drop off, leaving the mature leaf smooth and lus- 
trous. The leaf is similar to the tea leaf in form 
and venation, but is larger, Ijroader and thicker. 





Fig. 379. Camellia {Camellia 
Japotiica). Leaf, natural 

size, (MOELLEE.) 



Fig. s8o. 



Camellia. Epidermis of leaf in cross 
section. (Moeller.) 



Epidermis (Figs. 380 and 381). Cross-sections show that the strongly 
thickened and cuticularized outer walls have wart-like projections on 
their inner surfaces. In surface view the cells show broad pores, and 
in consequence of the projections are often very irregular in form. The 
stomata are often nearly circular, and occur only on the lower epidermis. 



468 



ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS, 



The Mesophyl contains idioblasts and oxalate crystals similar to 
those of tea. 




Fig. 3S1. Camellia. Lower epidermis of leaf. (AIoeller.) 

The leaves are said to be used as an adulterant 
of tea, although poorly suited for the purpose. 
The thick-walled epidermis is characteristic. 

CHERRY LEAVES. 

Leaves of the sweet cherry {Primus avium L., 
order Rosacea") are seldom over 10 cm. long, 
about 5 cm. broad, oblong-ovate, taper-pointed, 
petioled, with numerous teeth on the margin, 
each with a small gland (Fig. 382). On one or 
both sides of the petiole is a brown, glistening 
gland. 



Fig. 382. Cherry {Primus 
avium). Leaf, natural size. 

(MOELLER.) 




Fig. 383. Cherry. Upper epidermis of leaf. 

X 300. (MOELLER.) 



SLOE LEAVES. 



469 



The Upper Epidermis (Fig. 383) is made up of irregularly polygonal 
cells averaging 30 /<, with a very delicate, finely striated cuticle. Along 
the veins are a few unicellular, dagger-shaped hairs about 600 11 long 
and the same size at the base as the epidermal cells. 

The Lower Epidermis (Fig, 384) consists of delicate cells with sinuous 




Fig. 3S4. Cherry. Lower epidermis of leaf. X300. (AIoeli.er.) 



walls, numerous circular or elliptical stomata and hairs of the same type 
as those on the upper epidermis, but longer and thinner-walled. 

Noteworthy are the small oxalate rosettes occurring here and there 
in small epidermal cells. 

The Mesophyl contains numerous oxalate rosettes, 
and accompanying the bundles, simple crystals. 

The leaves of the sour cherry {P. Cerasus L.) are 
stiff, lustrous, and apparently smooth. 



SLOE LEAVES. 

The obovate or elliptical-lanceolate leaves of the sloe 
or black thorn {Primus splnosa L.) resemble somewhat 
tea leaves. Their borders are sharply and irregularly pj^^ ^g-^ 
toothed (Fig. 385). The veins form sharp angles with 



' ana the: 

! 



Sloe 
{P run us spi- 
na sn). Leaf, 

the midrib, and do not form distmct loops at the margm. natural size. 

The Upper Epidermis (Fig. 386) consists of thick- (-^^oeller.) 
walled, polygonal cells with delicate striations, through which here and 
there shimmer simple crystals and rosettes. 



470 



^LKALOIDAL PRODUCTS. 



The Lower Epidermis (Fig. 387) is more delicate than the upper, 
and the cuticle is striated only in places. The cells have slightly sinuous 




Fig. 386. 
leaf. 



Sloe. Upper epidermis of 

X160. (MOELLER.) 




Fig. 387. Sloe. Lower epidermis of leaf, 
seen from below. The crystal cells are 
not in the epidermis but in the meso- 
phyl, accompanying the fibro-vascular 
bundles. X 160. (Moeller.) 



walls, and are interspersed with numerous small (25 p) stomata in groups, 

some of which have horns like those of the asli leaf. 

The Mesophyl contains numerous crystal cells with rosettes or simple 

crystals of considerable size. Accompanying the fibro-vascular bundles, 

particularly on the under side, are crystal fibers, some of which on remov- 
ing the epidermis adhere to it. Unicellular, rather thick- 
^^■alled, often sinuous hairs are found along the veins 
and on the margins. 

R05E LEAVES. 

The leaflets of the odd-pinnate leaves of the rose 
{Rosa canina L., and other species) are easily distin- 
guished from tea leaves by their greater breadth, rounded 
base, dense and sharp serration, and vein-meshes (Fig. 
Fig. 388 Rose {Rosa ,88). Each tooth ends in a multicellular gland. 

canina). Leaf-"^^. . ^ 

let, natural size. The Epidermis (Fig. 389) is similar to that of the 

(Moeller.) ^^qq^ but the cuticle is smooth, and the walls are in 

many parts knotty and thickened. Many of tlie cells, along the veins, 

are filled with a homogeneous brown substance. The stomata on the 




>a|w^ 



STRAHBERRY LEAVES. 



471 



lower epidermis are rounded elliptical, of considerable size (35-40 /«) 
without accompanying cells. 




Fig. 389. Rose. A Upper epidermis of leaf. B lower ei^idermis seen from below; also 
crystals from mesophyl. X160. (Moeller.) 



STRAWBERRY LEAVES. 

The wood strawberry (Fragaria vcsca L., order Rosacece), has long- 
petioled, trifoliate leaves with coarsely serrate leaflets irregular at the 




Fig. 390. Strawberry (Fragaria vesca). Leaflet, natural size. (Moeller.) 

base and hairy underneath (Fig. 390). There are as many veins as 
teeth, each vein ending in a tooth. 

The Epidermis (Figs. 391 and 392) of both sides is similar, except that 



472 JLKALOIDAL PRODUCTS. 

the cells on the under side have thinner walls, which are sinuous. Two 




Fig. 391. Strawberry. Upper epidermis of leaf. (Moeller.) 




Fig. 392. Strawberry. Lower epidermis of leaf. (Mokller.") 

forms of hairs occur on both surfaces: (i) very long, unicellular, rigid 



MEADOIVS14/EET LEASES. 473 

and mostly straight, with thick porous base, and (2) multicellular, with 
globular heads, the thin walls swelling greatly in alkali. 

The Mesophyl contains great numbers of large simple crystals. 

riEADOWSWEET LEAVES. 

Meadowsweet (Spircea Ulmaria L., order Rosacece) grows wild in 
Europe and Asia and is also cultivated for its flowers, which were once 
used in medicine. 

The interruptedly pinnate leaves have irregularly pointed, ovate side 




Fig. 393. Meadowsweet {Spiraea Ulmaria). Leaflet, natural size. (Moeller.) 

leaflets, and 3-5 lobed end leaflets (Fig. 393). Both forms are com- 
poundly serrate. The ribs and veins are prominent on the under surface, 
and bear rough hairs. The veins anastomose some distance from the 
edge and send off branches into the teeth. 



474 /ILKALOIDAL PRODUCTS. 

The Epidermis (Figs. 394 and 395) of both sides is delicate, and not 




Fig. 394. Meadowsweet. Upper epidermis of leaf. (Moellek.) 

easily separated from the leaf. On the upper 
side the walls are slightly wavy, on the under 
side deeply wavy. Stomata occur only on the 
under side, hairs of three forms on both sides, 
but chiefly along the veins on the under side. 
The hairs on the body of the leaf are mostly 
unicellular, dagger-shaped, often sinuous, with 





Fig. 395. Meadowsweet. Lower FiG. 396. Meadowsweet. Glandular hairs of leaf, 
epidermis of leaf. (Moei.ler.) (Moellek.) 



14-' 1ST ARIA LEASES. 



475 



deeply-planted, rounded-angular base. On the veins, glandular hairs, 
some with short jointed stems, others with long two-rowed stems, 
predominate (Fig. 396). The heads of both 
forms are multicellular and globular. 

The Mesophyl contains a few crystal rosettes 
chiefly along the midrib. 

WISTARIA LEAVES. 

In Japan the odd-pinnate leaves of Wistaria 
Sinensis DC. {Kraunhia jloribunda Taubert, 
order PapiUonacece) are used as an adulterant 
of tea. The leaflets are ovate-lanceolate, entire, 
slightly plaited at the margins, not petioled 
(Fig. 397). The prominent veins form near 
the margin indistinct loops. 




Fig. 397. Wistaria {Wistaria 
Sinensis.) Leaflet natural 
size. (MOEIXER.) 




Fig. 398. Wistaria. Upper epidermis of leaf 
in cross section and surface view. (^NIoeller.) 



Fig. 399. Wistaria. Lower epidermis of 

leaf, (MOELLER.) 



The Epidermis (Figs. 398 and 399) consists of cells with thin wavy 
walls and curious hairs, made up of a short basal cell, a short thick-walled 



476 



ALKALOID/IL PRODUCTS. 



middle cell and a long, straight or sickle-shaped, thin walled, pointed end 

cell. Stomata occur only on the under 
side. 

Simple crystals accompany the bundles. 





Fig. 400. Hydrangea {Hydrangea 
Hortensia). Leaf, natural size. 

(MOELLER.) 



Fig. 401. Hydrangea. Epidermis of leaf 
with hairs. (Moeller.) 



HYDRANGEA LEAVES. 

This shrub {Hydrangea Hortensia DC, order Saxip-agacecs), is a native 
of Japan and northern China. In Japan the leaves are employed as a tea 

f 




Fig. 402. Hydrangea. Lower epidermis of leaf. (Moeller.) 

substitute under, the name of "Ama-cha." ^ They reach the size of tlie 

' Kellner, Hayakawa, and Kamoshita: Mittlg. d. deutsch Gas. f. Nat. u. Volkerk. Os- 

tasiens. IV. 



MAPLE LEASES. 



477 



hand and are short-petioled, pointed-ovate, entire below, unequally- 
dentate above (Fig. 400). The veins extend in gentle curves almost 
to the margin, where they anastomose and send off branches into 
the teeth. 

Epidermis (Figs. 401 and 402). The cells are polygonal or sinuous 
in outline. Unicellular hairs with rounded base and apex occur only 
along the veins. 

The Mesophyl contains raphides. 



MAPLE LEAVES. 

The leaves of most maples are palmatcly lobed, but in the ash-leaved 
species {Acer Negundo L., or Negundo jraxinijolium Nutt, order Acer- 
acece) they are odd-pinnate, somewhat resembling 
tea. Each leaflet is short-petioled, ovate-lanceo- 
late, coarsely but sparingly toothed (Fig. 403). 
The veins form indistinct loops near the margin. 
To the naked eye they appear smooth, but under 
the lens they are hairy on the margins. 

Epidermis (Fig. 404). The cells are irregu- 
larly polygonal. Stomata occur on both surfaces, 
also: (i) unicellular smooth or warty hairs with 
rounded base, blunt point and slightly thickened 
walls, swelling and becoming stratified with 
alkali; (2) glandular hairs with 2-3 celled stem 
and unusually large head. 

The Mesophyl contains large simple crj'stals. 

OAK LEAVES. 




1 



Oak leaves of different ' species are widely 
different in form and size. The description 
here given applies to two European species 
(Querciis pedimculata Ehrh., and Q. sessi/i^ora 
Sm., order Fagacea). 

Epidermis (Figs. 406 and 407). Polygonal 
cells and 2-3 celled hairs with rounded apex 
and, often, broad base, are found on both surfaces; stomata only on 
the lower surface. 



Fig. 403. Ash -leafed Maple 
{Acer Negundo). Leaf, 
natural size. (Moeller.) 



478 



ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS. 




Fig. 404. Ash-leafed Maple. Upper epidermis of leaf. (Moeller.) 

^H - rp;\ Mesophyl. The bundles are accom- 

panied by simple crystals. 

AKEBIA LEAVES. 

According to Kellner ^ the leaves of 
"Fagi-Kadsura-Akebi" {Akebia qidnata 
(Thbg.) Decaisne, order LardizabalacecB), 
a perennial climbing plant, are used in 
Japan as a tea substitute. The plant is 
cultivated in the Occident for ornament. 

The obovate, entire, petioled leaflets 
are smooth, with four or less deli- 
cate veins, forming broad loops (Fig. 
408). 

Epidermis (Figs. 409 and 410). On 
the upper side the cells are large, with 
pronounced wavy walls; on the under side 
they are smaller and more nearly poly- 
gonal, and usually have papilla similar 

natural size "(Moeller ) ^^ ' ^^ those of COCOa leaves, although not SO 




Loc. cit. 



y4KEBlA LEAyES. 



479 



Strongly thickened. These papillae are not found on the four or more 
cells adjoining the stomata. 

- ^- r 




Fig. 406. Oak. Upper epidermis of leaf. (Moeller.) 





Fig. 407. Oak. Lower epidermis of leaf. (Moeller.) Fig. 408. Akebia (Akehia 

qitinata). Leaflet, natural 
size. (Moeller.) 




Fig. 4og. Akebia. Upper epidermis of leaf. (Moellep.) 



48o 



ALKALOlDylL PRODUCTS. 




Fig. 410. Akebia. Lower epidermis of leaf, (Moeller.) 

Mesophyl. A few simple crystals accompany the bundles. 



BLUEBERRY LEAVES. 

Of the numerous species of blueberries, the common European 
species {Vaccinium Myrtillus L,., order EricacecB) is here described. The 
leaves are ovate, finely serrate and lustrous (Fig. 411). The veins are not 





Fig. 411. European Blueberry 
{Vaccinium Myrtillus). Leaf, 
natural size. (Moeller.) 



Fig. 412. European Blueberry. Margin of 
leaf with teeth, under a lens. (Moeller.) 



prominent, but form a beautiful network. Under a lens each tooth is 
seen to end in a stalked gland (Fig. 412). 

Epidermis (Figs. 413 and 414). On the upper side stomata are absent, 
and the cells are either isodiametric, deeply sinuous, or, along the veins, 
elongated, slightly sinuous. Unicellular, warty, sickle-shaped hairs and 
multicellular glandular hairs like those of the teeth, accompany the elon- 
gated cells. The lower epidermis consists of deeply sinuous cells, stomata 



CAUCASIAN TEA. 



481 



with 4-5 accompanying cells, and glandular hairs like those described. 
Hanausek finds that if the margin is boiled with dilute potash, numerous 




Fig. 413. European Blueberry. Upper epidermis of leaf. CMoeller.) 

fine crystals, soluble in acetic acid, separate from the glandular 
secretion. 

Mesophyl. Simple crystals occur in crystal fibers or singly. 

CAUCASIAN TEA. 



In Russia the leaves of Vaccinium Arctostaphylos L. are prepared 
like tea. Leaves of this species are considerably larger than the preced- 
ing species, leathery, finely serrate, appearing smooth to the naked eye. 
The veins on the under side are prominent, forming indistinct loops 
distant from the margin. Under the lens hairs are evident along these 
veins, also a glandular hair on each tooth. 

Epidermis (Figs. 415 and 416). The upper epidermal cells are poly- 
gonal, thick- walled, often porous, with a striated cuticle; those of the 



4^2 ALKALOID^L PRODUCTS. 

lower epidermis are sinuous, with thin walls. Unicellular, thick-walled 




Fig. 414. European Blueberry. Lower epidermis of leaf. (Moeller.) 





Fig. 415. Caucasian Tea (Fflca'««»w Fig. 416. Caucasian Tea. Lower epidermis 

Arctostaphylos). Upper epidermis of leaf. (Moeller.) 

of leaf. (Moeller.) 

warty hairs occur on both surfaces, but in the greatest numbers along the 
midrib on the under side. Glandular hairs occur not onlv on the teeth 



MATE. 



483 



but also, sparingly, on the surface. Hanausek notes a third form, 
designated "bladder hairs." 

Mesophyl Crystal rosettes and simple crystals are present, the latter 
along the bundles. 



OTHER TEA SUBSTITUTES. 

Mate, the only substitute for tea containing caffein, is described 
below. Leaves of the following plants are or have been used as sub- 
stitutes in the regions named: 

North America: Species of Ledum (Labrador Tea); Ceanothus 
Americaniis L. (New Jersey Tea); species of Monarda (Oswego Tea); 
Chenopodium amhrosioides L. (Mexican Tea). 

South America: Lantana pseudothea, Stachytarpheta Jamaicensls, 
Psoralia glandula, Myrtus Ugni, Alstonia ihecrformis, Capraria bi flora, 
Angrecum jr a grans, and Eritrichium gnaphaloldes. 

China: Sageretia theezans. 

Australia: Species Myrtacea. 

MATE. 

Mate, Paraguay tea, or Jesuit tea, is prepared 
from the leaves of Ilex Paraguaricnsis St. Hil. 
(order AquijoliacecB), a small tree growing in South 
America. The leafy branches are cut from the tree 
and dried by artificial heat, after which the leaves 
are stripped off and ground to a coarse powder. 
In this form it is placed on the market as a sub- 
stitute for tea. It is c|uite commonly used in South 
America, but not to any extent in other regions, 
notwithstanding repeated efforts of promoters. The 
product contains as high as 20 per cent of tannin 
and a considerable amount of caffein (0.5-0.9 per 
cent). 

The leaves are up to 13 cm. or more long and 4 
cm. broad, ovate or nearly spatulate, tapering to the 
short petiole, blunt or rounded at the apex. They 
are dentate, smooth but only slightly lustrous, and 
leathery (Fig. 417). The veins form sharp loops at some distance from 
the margin. The secondary veins are also distinct. 




Fig. 417. Mate {Ilex 
Paraguarieusis). Leaf, 
natural size. (Moel- 

LER.) 



484 



j4lkaloidal products. 

HISTOLOGY. 



Epidermis (Figs. 418 and 419). On both sides the cells are more or 
less polygonal, with striated cuticle. Along the veins they are arranged 




Fig. 418. Male. Upper epidermis of leaf, from one of the veins. (MoELLER.) 

side by side in rows. Numerous stomata, larger than the surrounding 
cells, occur on the lower epidermis. 

The Mesophyl contains oxalate rosettes. Thick strands of fibers 
accompany the bundles. 




Fig. 419. Mate, Lower epidermis of leaf. (Moeller.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Moeller (30, 31, 32); Planchon et Collin 
(34); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Vogl (44). 

Cador: Anatomische Untersuchungen der Mateblatter unter Beriicksichtigung ihres 
Gehaltes an Tein. Bot. Centralbl. 1900. 



COCA. 



485 



Collin: Du mate ou the du Paraguay. Journ. pharm. chim., 1891. 

Collin: Journ. pharm. 1886. 

Doublet: Le mate. Paris, 1885. 

Loesener: Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Matepflanzen. Bar. deutsch. pharm. Ges. 

1896. Notizbl. d. konigl. Bot. Gartens u. Museums in Beriin, 1897. Verh. d. 

bot. Ver. d. Pro\inz Brandenburg, 1891. 
Neger und Vanino: Der Paraguay-Tee. Stuttgart, 1903. 
PoLENSKE u. Busse: Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Matesorten des Handels. Arb. des 

kaiserl. Gesundheitsamtes, 1898. 

COCA. 

The leaves of the coca shrub (Erylhroxylon Coca Lam., order Ery- 
throxylacecB) have been chewed by South American natives for genera- 
tions. Of late years they have been in demand for the preparation of 
cocaine, the well-known anaesthetic. The full-grown leaves (Fig. 420) are 
6-8 cm. long, half as broad, ovate, blunt or rounded 
at the apex, short -petioled, smooth, light green beneath. 
The midrib extended beyond the apex forms a short 
prickle. The veins anastomose some distance from 
the entire but slightly revolute margin, while the 
veinlets form a delicate network with wide meshes. 
On holding a leaf to the light, two slender curved 








sp 

Fig. 421. Coca. Leaf in cross section, epa upper 
epidermis; p palisade cells; m spongy parenchyma 
with bundle and K crystal cell; epi lower epidermis 
with 5/) stoma. X160. (Moeller.) 



Fig. 420. Coca {Ery- 
lhroxylon Coca), 
Leaf, natural size. 

(MOELLEE.) 

ribs running each side of the midrib from base to apex are evident. 
These are not at all connected with tlie venation, but serve to stififen 

the leaf. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Cross sections show a small-celled upper epidermis with a thin cuticle, 
a single layer of moderately elongated palisade cells, a loose spongy 
parenchyma pierced by vascular bundles, and finally the lower epidermis 
of curiously humped cells (Fig. 421). 



486 



ALKALOID^L PRODUCTS. 



The Upper Epidermis (Fig. 422) consists of somewhat thick, polygonal 
cells with a finely granular cuticle. 

The Lower Epidermis (Fig. 423) has walls similar to those of the upper, 
but somewhat wavy. In the middle of each is a hump-like papilla which 









Fig, 422. Coca. Upper epidermis of 
leaf and p palisade cells, from below. 

X 160. (MOELLER.) 



Fig. 423. Coca. Lower epidermis of leaf 
with sp stoma. Xi6o. (Moeller.) 



in surface view appears like a circle with double contour. The stomata 
are very small (20-30 fx), and are flanked by two accompanying cells 
without papillae. 

Mesophyl. Monoclinic crystals are abundant, particularly on the 
under side of the bundles. In the false ribs the subepidermal tissue is 
not spongy but collenchymatous, thus strengthening the leaf. 

The venation and the lower epidermis are characteristic. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Koch, L. (22); Moeller (30,31,32); Plan- 
chon und Collin (34); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Vogl (44). 
Hartwich: Beitr. z. Kenntnis d. Cocablatter. Arch. d. Pharm. 1903. 
H.\rtwich: Beitr. z. Kenntnis d. Cocablatter. Pharm. Praxis, 1904. 
Hartwich: "Coca" in Realenzykl. d. ges. Pharm. 2. Aufl., III. 1904. 
Moeller: Die Falten des Cocablattes. Pharm. Post, 1891. 
Nevinny: Das Cocablatt. Wien, 1866. 



TOBACCO. 

Two species (Nicotiana Tahacum L., N. riistica L., order SolanacecB) 
and their varieties, yield the tobacco of commerce. These plants, natives 
of the New World, were first introduced into Europe in 1586 by Francis 
Drake. 



TOBACCO. 



487 




Fig. 424. Tobacco {Nicotiana Tabacum). Small leaf, natural size. (Moeller.) 



488 



yiLK/lLOIDAL PRODUCTS. 



Tobacco leaves are ovate or ovate-lanceolate, entire, up to J meter 
long, broad or rather narrow, petioled or sessile (Fig. 424). They are 
glandular-hairy. The veins form loops near the margins. 



HISTOLOGY. 



The general structure of the leaf is learned from cross-sections (Fig. 
425); the details of chief value in diagnosis from surface preparations 
of the epidermis (Figs. 426 and 427). 

Epidermis. The cells are large, and on the lower surface have dis- 




FiG. 425. Tobacco. Cross section through midrib, epo upper epidermis; p paHsade 
cells; m spongy perenchyma; c coUenchyma; epi lower epidermis; g fibro-vascular 
bundle; K crystal sand; h jointed hair; J/i glandular hairs. X loo. (Moeller.) 

tinctly wavy walls. Stomata are about three times as numerous on the 
under surface as on the upper. The clammy hairs are all multicellular, 
with thin walls and a broad base, but are of four forms: (i) jointed 
with pointed or blunt apex; (2) like the first, but branching; (3) glandu- 



TOBACCO. 



489 



lar with multicellular head and jointed stem; (4) like the last, but with 
short unicellular stem. The first three forms reach an extraordinary 




Fig. 426. Tobacco. Upper epidermis. X160. Fig. 427. Tobacco. Lower epidermis. 

(MOELLER.) X160. (MOELLER.) 

length, and are usually evident to the naked eye. The cuticle is striated 
and often granular on the surface. 

Mesophyl. The chlorophyl parenchyma is brown. Numerous cells 
filled with crystal sand are present. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The characteristic elements are the epidermis with the four forms 
of multicellular hairs, also the mesocarp cells with crystal sand. The 
epidermal cells with hairs are readily found in surface preparations of 
fragments from cigars, smoking and chewing tobacco, also in powder 
mounts of snuff. The latter, being made from the coarser part of the 
leaf, contains a preponderance of vascular elements. Before searching 
for adulterants the material should be boiled with dilute alkali, filtered 
and washed. 

Hauenschild states that leaves of the following are used in tobacco: 
Cherry, artichoke, linden, acacia, walnut, sunflower, arnica, watercress, 
hemp, rose, oak, dock, betony, chestnut, melilot, and especially beet, 
cabbage, chicory, and potato. In the manufacture of plug tobacco 
the following materials are employed: Common salt, sirup, sugar. 



490 /iLKALOIDAL PRODUCTS. 

licorice, rum, sal-ammoniac, prunes, tamarinds, vanilla, essential oils, 
benzoic acid, carob beans, saltpetre, potash, cloves, anise, violet root, 
gum, dextrine, etc. Various materials, in powder form, may be used as 
adulterants. 

In Germany the revenue law allows the addition to tobacco of a cer- 
tain percentage of cherry and rose leaves (see pp. 468-471). English laws 
prohibit the use of the following: Sugar, sirup, molasses, honey, malt 
sprouts, roasted seeds, chicory, lime, sand, umber, ocher or other earths, 
seaweed, roots, moss, and all leaves and herbs. 

Some of the leaves used as adulterants are described elsewhere in 
this work; others must be learned by experience. Usually all that is 
necessary is to prove that the leaf is not tobacco. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Moeller (30, 31, 32); Molisch {2,^] Planchon 
et Collin (34); Vogl (44); Krasser (48). 
Koning: Der Tabak. Leipzig, 1900. 
Kissling: Der Tabak. Berlin, 1893. 



PART IX. 

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS/ 

Under the head of spices and condiments are here grouped all products 
used merely for flavoring. They include certain fruits (pepper, cayenne, 
allspice, anise, vanilla, etc.), seeds (nutmeg, mustard, etc.), roots (gin- 
ger, horseradish, etc.), barks (cassia, cinnamon, and clove bark), flower 
buds (cloves, capers, cassia buds), leaves and herbs (sage, savory, bay 
leaf, etc.). 

Mustard seeds are described for convenience with other cruciferous 
seeds in the section on oil seeds. 

Turmeric, a root allied to ginger, and saffron, the stiginas of Crocus 
sativus, although chiefly valuable as dyes, are also classed as spices. 

The valuable constituents of most spices are essential oils, although 
the pungent principles of mustard and horseradish are sulphur com- 
pounds, and the capsicin of cayenne pepper and paprika, as well as 
the vanillin of the vanilla bean, are crystalline solids. The tissues and 
other elements, although useless for seasoning, are of chief service 
in diagnosis. 

The Impurities of spices introduced through accident or through 
faulty methods of collecting, curing, cleaning, and handling, include 
dirt, small stones, woody matter, extraneous parts of the plant, weed 
seeds, and insect contamination. 

Mineral Mailer. Dirt in the form of dust is deposited during the 
growing or ripening periods on fruits, barks and leaves, but not, of course, 
on seeds protected by the pericarp. It is washed off to some extent by 
rains, but, on the other hand, rains often spatter mud on low-growing 
plants, thus seriously injuring the quality of the product. It is well 
known in the trade that, for this reason alone, cayenne pepper, sage, 
and other spices, differ greatly from year to year in cleanness. 

Certain commercial varieties of black pepper, such as Acheen, 

^ The descriptions of barks (excepting cassia), rhizomes, leaves, and flowers are by 
Prof. J. Moeller. 

493 



494 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 

Lampong, Tellicherry, etc., are sun-dried on the ground, and as a con- 
sequence are contaminated with lumps of dirt, stones, sticks, etc., while 
Singapore pepper, being a fire-dried product, is much cleaner. 

Ginger and other roots are freed from adhering soil by washing, but 
the undecorticated sorts, such as African and Calcutta, are seldom abso- 
lutely clean when placed on the market. 

Scraped cassia and Ceylon cinnamon are usually quite clean, while 
unscraped cassia, and particularly cassia chips, are often more or less 
contaminated with adhering dirt. Low grade or broken China cassia 
is particularly dirty. 

Limed nutmegs and " bleached " ginger are coated with a thin layer 
of calcium carbonate which is said to prevent the ravages of insects, and 
is not, therefore, regarded as an adulteration. 

Penang white pepper is invariably coated with a brown-gray layer 
consisting largely of calcium carbonate. 

Extraneous Matter from the plant itself, such as stems in cayenne 
pepper, cloves, allspice, umbelliferous fruits, and various leaves, also 
shells in nutmegs and pepper, should be present only in very small quanti- 
ties in properly cleaned spices. The fact that the impurity is produced 
by the same plant as yields the spice is no valid excuse for not removing 
such an impurity or for its willful addition. Clove stems, for example, 
are as much an adulterant in ground cloves, as would be sawdust made 
from the clove tree. 

Weed Seeds are accidental impurities of mustard and umbelliferous 
seeds, from which they can be largely removed by sifting. Most of the 
other common spices, are not subject to this kind of contamination. 

Insects, although avoiding certain spices rich in essential oil, cause 
great havoc in certain others. The drug-store beetle is almost sure to 
make its appearance in whole unlimed ginger, if stored for a long time, 
burrowing through the roots and transforming nearly the whole product 
into an unappetizing powder. Cayenne pepper and paprika, both whole 
and ground, are attacked by a small moth which spins a dense web through 
the material. Nutmegs used for grinding are often light-weight kernels 
from which the starchy matter has been almost entirely eaten out by insects, 
leaving only the brown resinous veins. Mites and other insects infesting 
cereal products, also occur in mustard flour mixed with wheat flour, corn 
meal, and other cereal adulterants. 

Adulterants. Probably no class of products are so frequently or so 
grossly adulterated as ground spices. The incentive is unusually great 



/IDULTER/tNTS. 495 

owing to their high, cost and their strong odor, which conceals a consider- 
able admixture of worthless material. 

A list of the adulterants includes a great variety of cheap materials 
in powder form, and also certain dyes and pigments, added to conceal the 
makeweights. 

Inorganic Materials. These are partly diluents, such as calcium 
sulphate, calcium carbonate, brick-dust, coal-ashes, sand and clay, and 
partly pigments, such as Venetian red and chrome yellow. Because of 
their greater weight they are used less often than vegetable materials. 
Calcium sulphate (plaster of Paris or gypsum) is occasionally added to 
mustard flour and ground ginger, but not to the dark-colored spices. 
Brick-dust has been found in cayenne pepper, coal-ashes in white pepper, 
and sand in various spices. Venetian red (iron oxide) is used in imitating 
the color of cloves, allspice, cinnamon, and nutmeg, while chrome yellow 
formerly was used in mustard. 

Organic Material. Among the numerous diluents of vegetable origin 
are flour, bran and chaff of the cereals; hulls, bran, and other products of 
buckwheat; screenings; peas, beans, and other legumes; linseed meal, 
cottonseed meal, ground cocoanut cake, and other oil cakes; cocoanut 
shells (raw and charred), almond shells, and other nut shells; olive stones; 
sawdust, red sandalwood, and other woody materials; clove steriis, 
mustard hulls, pepper shells, exhausted spices, and other waste products 
from spices. Other adulterants are : cayenne pepper, tidded to adulterated 
black pepper to reinforce its pungency; turmeric and other dyes used to 
color mustard; red coal-tar dyes added to cayenne pepper; and finally 
Bombay mace, a worthless substitute for true mace. This list is far from 
complete, but includes the materials most commonly employed. 

The analyst will be greatly aided in his search by a knowledge of the 
available materials and commercial practices in his own country. For 
example, ground hazelnut shells is a distinctively European adulterant, 
while ground cocoanut shells is distinctively American; also rape, sun- 
flower, and several other oil cakes are used in Europe, while only linseed 
and cottonseed cakes are commonly available in America. 

Hints on the detection of foreign materials are given in the final section 
under each spice. 

Identification of Ground Spices in spice mixtures or other food products 
is sometimes desirable, and for this purpose the key on p. 498 may be 
found useful. 



49^ spices and condiments. 

Methods of Examination. 

Preliminary Examination. The odor and especially the taste of the 
different spices is, as a rule, so characteristic, that complete substitution 
of other products would be recognized even by a layman. But adulterations 
with inert substances are not so readily detected by cither the sense of 
smell or of taste, although one with experience will often find cause for 
suspicion. 

The color is a valuable guide, as it is no easy matter to color fraudulent 
mixtures so as to exactly imitate the genuine. For example, colored 
mustard flour is almost always much yellower than the uncolored, and. 
colored cayenne pepper is of a somewhat different shade from the genuine. 

Texture and "grain" are also altered by the addition of foreign sub- 
stances. 

After removing the finer material by sifting, or separating into strata 
by jarring on a sheet of paper, suspicious fragments may often be picked 
out under a lens. These are first examined as to their color, texture, 
hardness and similar physical characters and then crushed or macerated 
for microscopic examination. 

Chemical Analysis. The following determinations, applicable to most 
of the spices, are of value in diagnosis: total ash, ash soluble in water, 
sand (ash insoluble in hydrochloric acid), fixed oil (non-volatile ether 
extract), essential oil (volatile ether extract), alcohol extract, crude fiber, 
crude starch (copper-reducing matters by direct inversion), pure starch 
(by the diastase method), and total nitrogen. 

If the quantity of ash is excessive, it should be examined for sand, 
calcium sulphate, iron oxide, and similar impurities. 

Determination of essential oil is especially valuable in the examination 
of cloves, as this spice normally contains as high as 20 per cent of this 
constituent, but in the examination of other spices is of lesser importance, 
the percentage being usually small and exceedingly variable. 

Although possessing no pungent qualities, certain fixed oils are char- 
acteristic constituents of mustard, mace, cayenne, and other spic es. 

Determination of crude fiber aids greatly in detecting nut shells, saw- 
dust and similar woody adulterants, while determination of starch serves 
both to detect starchy adulterants in non-starchy spices, and non-starchy 
adulterants in starchy spices. 

Among the processes applicable only to certain spices are the determina- 
tion of crude piperine (nitrogen in the non-volatile ether extract) in black 



METHODS OF EXAMINATION. 497 

and white pepper; of cold-water extract in ginger (to detect exhausted 
ginger); of tannin in cloves and allspice; also the qualitative tests for 
Bombay mace, turmeric, coal-tar colors, etc. 

Microscopical Examination is by far the most valuable, and in many 
cases the only, means of detecting vegetable adulterants in spices. Even 
in cases where chemical analysis furnishes evidences of foreign admixtures, 
microscopic examination is usually essential to determine the nature and 
origin of that admixture. As a rule this examination coupled with a 
determination of ash is all that is needed in pronouncing on a suspected 
sample. 

The microscopist who undertakes this work should have at his command 
for comparison authenticated samples of whole and ground spices as well 
as of spice adulterants. 

Direct Exammation in water of the finely ground material and of sus- 
pected fragments picked out under the lens, also a second examination, 
after the addition of iodine, serves for the identification of the starch 
grains and some of the tissues. The same portion should afterward be 
treated with a small drop of alkali, thus rendering the tissues more dis- 
tinct. Another valuable clearing agent is chloral hydrate solution, in 
a few drops of which a small portion of the material is allowed to soak 
for some hours. 

Of the characteristic reactions for the detection of particular spices 
only two need here be mentioned, namely, the change from yellow to 
brown-red of fragments of turmeric on treatment with ammonia, potash 
or soda, and the red color imparted to hulls of charlock on heating with 
chloral. 

In the simple manner described most of the adulterants can be de- 
tected by one familiar with the elements of the spices themselves and 
of the adulterants. Treatment with other reagents is sometimes useful 
but seldom essential. 

The Special Methods of preparing the material for microscopic 
examination described under flour (p. 54), and cereal feeds (p. 59) 
are applicable for starchy spices, or spices containing an admixture of 
starchy matter, while those described under oil seeds products (p. 171) 
are applicable for spices free from starch. The crude fiber process is 
one of the most useful of these methods. It is, however, seldom necessary 
to resort to preliminar}' treatment, as direct examination in water or some 
other medium, and treatment with reagents on the slide, are usually 
quite as satisfactory. 



49^ SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



Analytical Key to the Common Spices used in Powder Form. 

A. Starch present; epidermal tissues with stomata absent. 

(a) Starch grains minute (2-10 /<), polygonal, forming compact masses. 

* Stone cells present, those of the hypodermal layer small, thick -walled. 

1. Endocarp of small stone cells (less than 50 ,«) with broad cavity. . .Pepper. 

2. Endocarp of large stone cells (over*5o /i) with narrow cavity Cubebs. 

3. Endocarp of very large, porous, elongated cells Long Pepper. 

** Stone cells absent. 

4. Mosaic of brown, thick-walled palisade cells Cardamom. 

(b) Starch grains medium size (up to 20 /(), rounded, often in small aggregates; 

hilum distinct. 

5. Stone cells and bast fibers present Cinnamon ' and Cassia. 

6. Stone-cells present; bast fibers absent; tissues of spermoderm port -wine 

color Allspice. 

7. Neither stone cells nor bast fibers present; tissues of perisperm brown. 

Nutmeg. 

(c) Starch grains large (mostly over 20 /<), pear-shaped; hilum excentric; reticulated 

vessels present. 

8. Starch grains perfect; bast fibers present; tissues nearly colorless. .Ginger. 

9. Starch grains mostly in formless masses; bast fibers absent; tissues bright 

yellow, becoming brown-red with alkali Turmeric. 

B. Starch absent; epidermal tissues with stomata absent except on calyx of 12 and 13. 

10. Palisade cells of speimoderm form a brown mosaic with darker reticulations. 

Brown Mustard. 

11. Palisade cells of spermoderm form a yellow mosaic without reticulations. 

White Mustard. 

12. Epidermal cells of pericarp polygonal, with yellow walls; ground tissue 

contains yellow or red oil drops Paprika. 

13. Same as last, but epidermal cells quadrilateral, in rows. . . .Cayenne Pepper. 

14. Epidermis of large elongated cells; ground tissue contains amylodextrine- 

starch grains (red with iodine) Mace. 

15. Yellow color soluble in water; pollen grains often present Saffron. 

C. Starch grains absent (except in chlorophyl grains); epidermal tissues with stomata 

present. 

(a) Chlorophyl absent. 

16. Numerous oil cells; crystal cells in rows beside spiral vessels Cloves. 

17. Brown jointed oil ducts present Umbelliferous Fruits (p. 551). 

(b) Chlorophyl present. 

* Hairs absent. 

18. Epidermal cells with thick, wavy walls Bay Leaf. 

** Epidermis with simple, jointed and disk-shaped (glandular) hairs. 

t Hairs smooth. 

' Cassia buds have small starch grains, epidermal hairs, and numerous bundles. 



CONDIMENTAL CATTLE AND POULTRY FOODS. 499 

19. Jointed hairs very numerous, long, narrow, pointed Sage. 

tt Hairs warty or smooth. 

20. Jointed hairs numerous, long, broad, straight, thin-walled Marforam. 

21. Hairs very numerous, mostly short, conical Thyme. 

22. Hairs few, those with joints bent near the end, thin-walled Savory. 

Condimental Cattle and Poultry Foods. 

Numerous proprietary mixtures of cereal or uil-seed products, with 
aromatic substances, simple drugs and other materials, are extensively 
advertised as food auxiliaries, appetizers and tonics for bovine cattle, 
horses, swine and poultry. They occupy a place between ordinary 
cattle foods on one hand and condition powders on the other, and are 
sold at prices out of proportion to the value of their constituents, with 
extravagant claims as to their nutritive and curative properties. As 
foods they are of no greater value than the common feeds of which they 
are largely composed, while as tonics they are counterparts of numerous 
patent medicines for human use. 

As various aromatic substances are characteristic ingredients, they 
are properly considered with the spices. 

The Constituents may be classed under three heads : (i) food materials ; 
(2) spices, including fenugreek, and (3) drugs. 

The food materials include a number of common feeds of greater or 
lesser value, such as bran and other by-products of wheat, maize meal, 
gluten meal, linseed meal, bean meal, carob-bean meal, malt sprouts, 
cocoa shells, etc. With these should be classed salt, ground bone, ground 
meat, crushed sea shells and ground quartz (the last four being con- 
stituents of poultry foods), all of which are useful in the animal economy. 
Of the spices fenugreek is probably the most extensively employed, 
the characteristic odor of many preparations being due to this constituent. 
Ginger, cayenne pepper and mustard hulls are also common ingredients, 
while anise and fennel are stated to be present in some mixtures. 

The drugs are partly vegetable and partly mineral. 

The bitter taste of most of the mixtures is due to ground gentian root, 
the cheapest of the bitter drugs, although wormwood is sometimes em- 
ployed. Charcoal serves not only as a remedy, but also to give the mix- 
ture a gray color, thus concealing other constituents. Licorice, lobelia, 
bloodroot, elecampane, and other drugs are less often used. 

Among the mineral drugs reported by analysts are sulphur, Epsom 
salts (magnesium sulphate), Glauber's salts (sodium sulphate), potassium 
chlorate, and Venetian red (iron oxide). 



500 spices ^nd condiments. 

Methods of Examination. 

Preliminary Examination. The hints given under cereal cattle foods 
(p. 59), oil-seed products (p. 170), and spices (p. 496) apply also to con- 
dimcntal foods. 

Fenugreek, ginger, cayenne pepper, and umbelliferous seeds are 
characterized by their odor and taste; gentian, common salt, and other 
salts by their taste; charcoal and Venetian red by their color; ground 
quartz by its gritty nature. 

Vegetable constituents can often be picked out for microscopic exami- 
nation, and small crystals of Epsom and Glauber's salts, lumps of sulphur, 
fragments of sea shells and other mineral constituents, for chemical 
tests. 

Chemical Examination. Qualitative Tests are made for chlorine 
(common salt), sulphuric acid (Epsom and Glauber's salts), magnesia 
(Epsom salts), carbonic acid (calcium carbonate), lime (calcium carbon- 
ate and phosphate), phosphoric acid (calcium phosphate), iron (Venetian 
red), sulphur, etc. 

These tests can all be made on quite small particles picked out from 
the material. Those soluble in water are conveniently dissolved in a 
minute drop of v^ater and a drop of the reagent added from a stirring 
rod. In this way we can detect in fragments weighing less than a milli- 
gram, chlorine by silver nitrate, sulphuric acid by barium chloride, mag- 
nesia by sodium phosphate. Carbonic acid of calcium carbonate is 
recognized by the effervescence with dilute hydrochloric acid, while 
lime is detected in the same portion, after making alkaline with ammonia, 
on addition of ammonium oxalate. The phosphoric acid of bone in a 
nitric acid solution gives on heating with ammonium molybdate solu- 
tion a bright-yellow precipitate. Sulphur burns with a blue flame 
giving off sulphurous vapors. Iron is best detected in the ash by its 
red-brown color and the red-brown precipitate of ferric hydrate ob- 
tained after dissolving in hydrochloric acid and addition of ammonia. 
Powdered charcoal is recognized by the fact that it is not bleached 
by boiling with aqua regia or a mixture of potassium chlorate and nitric 
acid, also by the gray color of the crude fiber obtained by the usual 
process. 

Quantitative Analyses. The usual proximate constituents (water, 
ash, protein, crude fiber, nitrogen-free extract, and fat, or rather ether 
extract) are determined, and if mineral drugs are present their constitu- 



CONDIMENTAL CJTTLE AND POULTRY FOODS. 501 

ents are also quantitatively determined. Carbonic acid is determined 
in the original material: Chlorine in the water solution; sulphuric acid, 
and magnesia, either in the water solution of the original material or the 
acid solution of the ash; phosphoric acid, calcium oxide and iron oxide 
in the acid solution of the ash, and sulphur in the ether extract after 
oxidation to sulphate. 

Microscopic Examination. The special methods described on pp. 497 
may be used in preparing the material for examination, although as a 
rule the finely ground material and fragments picked out under a lens 
may be suitably examined in water, and again after treatment with iodine, 
alkali, or other reagents. 

Cereal products are recognized by the characteristic starch grains 
and the tissues of the bran and chaff; starchy leguminous se?ds by 
the ellipsoidal starch grains with elongated hilum, also by the tissues of 
the spermoderm; linseed meal by the rectangular pigment cells with 
deep brown contents, and yellow-brown fragments consisting of the 
superimposed fibers and subepidermal cells; cottonseed meal by the 
yellow cell -contents of the embryo, the brown resin particles becoming 
red with sulphuric acid, and the remarkable elements of the black 
spermoderm. 

Fenugreek is usually present in relatively small amount, and it is 
often a tedious search to find fragments showing the characteristic pointed 
palisade cells and the broad column cells with ribs. This is especially 
true if linseed meal is present, as the spermoderm of this seed is also of 
a brown color. Of some aid in the search is the bright-yellow color 
imparted to the spermoderm by alkali. 

The most characteristic elements of umbelliferous seeds are the oil 
ducts. 

Cayenne is identified by the characteristic rectangular cells of the 
epicarp, with thick yellow walls, the intestine cells of the spermoderm, and 
the yellow or red oil drops. 

The chief elements of ginger are the large pear-shaped starch grains 
with excentric hilum, although the reticulated vessels and long bast fibers 
occur in small amount. 

Gentian, unfortunately, has no characteristic tissues, but in the absence 
of ginger the reticulated vessels, coupled with the bitter taste, furnish 
an indication of its presence. 

Charcoal in powder form appears under the microscope as black 
opaque particles, which arc not affected by any of the ordinary reagents. 



5°2 SPICES /IND CONDIMENTS. 

These particles may be found unchanged in the crude fiber obtained 
by the ordinary acid and alkaline treatment, also in the residue after 
bleaching, as already described. 



PIPERACEOUS FRUITS {PiperacecE). 

Black pepper, long pepper, and cubebs are single-seeded berries with 
the reserve material largely in the bulky perisperm. 

Hypodermal stone cells of the usual type are found in the pericarp 
of all three berries, while the endocarp of each is characteristic of the 
species, consisting in cubebs of several layers of large stone cells, in black 
pepper, of a single layer of small cells thickened in the inner part (beaker 
cells), and in long pepper of large elongated cells with moderately thick 
walls. In all three species very small, polygonal starch grains fill the 
cells of the perisperm. The largest grains occur in long pepper. 

PEPPER. 

Both the black and the white peppercorns of commerce are berries 
of Piper nigrum L., a climbing perennial indigenous to Malabar and 
Travencore, and cultivated in Sumatra, Siam, Borneo, Java, Ceylon, the 
Philippines, and tropical America. 

The vine reaches a length of 15 meters, and attaches itself to trees, 
rocks, or trellises by means of aerial roots thrown out from the joints. 
The inflorescence is in spikes up to 10 cm. long, either terminal, or oppo- 
site leaves, bearing 20-50 flowers, each nearly hidden from view by two 
bracts. The flowers appear in May or June, and the fruit, a one-seeded 
berry, ripens six months later, changing during ripening from green to 
red and finally to yellow. 

Black peppercorns are the green berries dried without shelling, either 
in the sun or over fires. Owing to the shrinking of the meat during 
drying, the black or green shell, consisting of pericarp and spermodcrm, 
is strongly wrinkled. 

White peppercorns are the berries, picked usually when fully ripe, 
which have been freed from the outer shell. The process commonly 
employed consists in soaking the berries in salt water or lime water, 
rubbing off the shell either with the fingers or by machinery, and drj'ing; 




PEPPER. 503 

but in some regions the shell is removed dry. The corns are of a light 
gray color, and while not so pungent as black pepper, have a finer flavor. 

Pepper is a notable example of a seed with reserve material almost 
entirely in the perisperm (Fig. 428). This perisperm forms the body 
of the seed, and has a cavity in the center one mm. 
or more in diameter and a smaller cavity in the 
apex containing traces of embryo and endosperm. 
The outer portion of the perisperm is horny, the 
inner portion floury. 

The grades of pepper on the market are desig- ^"^^^.i^;^ ^.P^! 
nated according to their places of growth, or oftener tudinal section of fruit. 

, . _^ r 1 • - c- c- -T- 11- -^ endosperm; N peri- 

their ports of shipment, as bmgapore, biam, Telli- sperm; i^^ pericarp and 
cherry, Trang, Lampong, Acheen, Penang, etc. m^^LLERl^^"^' ^^' 
Singapore black pepper, one of the best grades, is 

fire-dried, and consequently has a smoky odor and taste. Most of the 
other peppers, being sun-dried on the ground, do not have this quality, but 
are more or less contaminated with stems, earth, small stones, and in 
the case of Acheen, the poorest sort, with empty and light-weiglit kernels. 
Acheen pepper is sifted free of coarse shells before shipment and sepa- 
rated into grades A, B, C, D, according to the specific gravity; but the 
empty or light-weight kernels are more or less broken up during the sea 
voyage and handling, so that the product is invariably contaminated with 
more or less shells. Penang white pepper is coated with a gray substance 
consisting chiefly of carbonajte of lime. 

The characteristic constituents of pepper are: (i) Piperine, an inert, 
non-volatile, cr}'stalline substance, (5-8 per cent); (2) piperidine, a vola- 
tile alkaloid; (3) clavacin, a pungent resin; and (4) an aromatic vola- 
tile oil. Starch varies up to 40 per cent in black pepper and up to 60 per 
cent in white pepper. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Black peppercorns, sectioned either dry or after soaking in water, 
serve for the study of all the elements of the fruit; white peppercorns 
for all the elements but the outer pericarp. Clearing of the tissues may 
be effected either by heating with dilute alkali, or better by soaking in 
Javelle water. 

Pericarp (Figs. 429 and 430). To the naked eye the pericarp in black 
pepper is black or gray-black throughout, but in white pepper all that 
remains of the pericarp, namely the inner layer, is light gray. 



504 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 

1. The Epicarp (cp) consists of polygonal cells (15-30 /«) and occasional 
stomata, covered by a cuticle 5 fi thick. In the dried berries the contents 
arc dark brown or black. 

2. Hypoderm {ast). Small thin-walled cells, intermingled with strongly 
thickened, often radially elongated, porous, yellow stone cells, form the 
hvpodermal layer. Both forms of cells often contain a dark-brown 
material, which takes on a reddish color with alkali. The stone cells 
vary greatly in size and are among the most conspicuous elements of the 
fruit, but arc of course absent in white pepper, while pepper shells, removed 
in the preparation of white pepper, contain them in extraordinarily large 
numbers. 

3. Outer Mesocarp. The mcsocarp is differentiated into four more or 
less distinct layers. In the outer layers most of the cells are of moderate 
size, and contain minute starch grains or chlorophyl; but here and there 
larger cells with suberized walls contain oil or resin. This is the innermost 
of the layers removed in preparing white pepper. 

4. Bundle Layer (}v). In the next layer, consisting of smaller, more 
or less compressed cells, ramify the libro-vascular bundles. 

5. Oil Cells {p). An interrupted layer of large cells with suberized 
walls and oily contents is evident in cross-section. 

6. An Inner Mesocarp of thin-walled but porous cells completes the 
pulpy part of the pericarp. 

7. Endocarp (ist). Beaker Cells, so called because of their thickened, 
sclerenchymatized inner and radial walls, form the inner stone cell layer 
or endocarp. As seen in cross-section, they are horseshoe-shaped with 
distinct pores. Surface preparations are also characteristic, the double 
porous walls being thinner than in the stone cells of the outer layers. 

Spermoderm (Figs. 429 and 430). This forms a thin layer of little 
diagnostic importance. 

I. Outer Epidermis (is). Vogl and some other authorities consVlcr 
the elongated cells of this layer as belonging to the spermoderm; Tschirch 
and Oesterle, however, who have studied its development, believe that 
it is a portion of the pericarp. Its connection with the spermoderm is 
best seen in the vicinity of the micropyle, where the cells are largest and 
thickest-walled. Over the body of the seed they arc much compressed and 
are scarcely evident except after heating with alkali, or bleaching with 
Javelle water, washing in dilute acetic acid and staining. This latter 
treatment not cmly causes the compressed cells to assume their original 
shape, but also greatly swells the walls. 



PEPPER. 



505 



2 Middle Coat. This consists of one or two layers of elongated cells 
similar to those of the epidermis. on..aiea cells 




Fig. 429. Black Pepper. Cross section of outer layers of fruit. Pericarp consists of ^* 

:'XTlls'an/S/ndT' ''°"' ''"%''' °"^^^ '"^^°^^^P ^'^* °^^ ^^"^' /- "[Indl zone! 
^ 01] c^lls, and tst endocarp; spermoderm consists of is outer epidermis and inner la vers 
(not shown); pensperm consists of al aleurone cells, am starch masses r« resTn cdls 
and pip pipenn crystals. (Moeller.) masses, res resin cells, 

3. P/^me«/ Layer. OAving to the dark-brown tannin substance, the 
elongated cells of this layer are conspicuous both in cross section and 



5o6 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



surface view, although their cell-structure is not clearly seen except after 
treatment with alkali or some other reagent. Under favorable conditions 
the walls appear distinctly beaded. Iron salts impart a blue color to the 
contents. 

Perisperm (Figs. 429 and 430). i. Hyaline Layer. This is evident 
in cross section as a hyaline band inclosing not only the inner layers of 

1^. '^ 



r*^- 




FlG. 430. Black Pepper. Elements of powder, ep epicarp; ast hypodermal stone cells; 
bj bast fibers; bp bast sclerenchyma; sp vessels; p oil cells; ist endocarp; is, as layers 
of spermoderm; am starch masses. Xi6o. A starch grains, X6oo. (Moeller.) 

the perisperm, but also the embryo and endosperm at the end of the seed. 
As it does not show evidences of being pierced by the micropyle, it is 
here classed with the perisperm. Evidences of the cellular structure 
appear on treatment of cross sections with alkali. In surface view the 
cells are elongated polygonal with thin walls. 

2. Aleurone Cells (al). Macroscopic examinations of a kernel cut in 
half show that the outer portion is horny, while the inner portion, sur- 
rounding the central cavity, is mealy. If cross sections arc treated with 
iodine solution and examined under the microscope, it is evident that the 
cells of the two or more outer layers are small and contain aleurone 
grains, but no starch. 



PEPPER. 507 

3. Starch Cells (am). The inner portion of the perisperm consists 
of large, radially elongated cells, up to 150 /« long, filled with masses 
of minute starch grains embedded in proteid matter. The starchy con- 
tents of the inner cells separate as compact masses conforming to the 
shape of the cells, in which are evident not only the individual grains, but 
sometimes also oval aggregates of grains such as occur in rice and oats. 
Pepper starch grains are among the smallest in the vegetable kingdom, 
being usually 2-4 // in diameter and never exceeding 6 /<. They are 
polygonal or rounded and have an evident hilum. Strikingly different from 
the polygonal cells containing aleurone grains and starch are the rounded 
resin cells (res) distributed here and there among these. In these are con- 
tained yellow globules of oil, also lumps of resinous matter, and often 
needle-shaped crystals of piperin (pip). These latter are seen in greater 
numbers after mounting in alcohol, allowing the alcohol to evaporate 
slowly, and remounting in water. The piperin is soluble in alcohol and 
ether, but insoluble in water. If sections are placed in a drop of 
concentrated sulphuric acid a deep-red solution is obtained. 

Endosperm and Embryo are minute and are of no diagnostic importance. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Black Pepper, although prepared from the green berry, contains all 
the microscopic elements of the fruit in practically full development. Of 
greatest importance in identification are the outer stone cells (Fig. 430, 
ast), the beaker cells (ist), and the masses (ajn) consisting of minute starch 
grains (A). Sulphuric acid dissolves the piperin to a deep-red solution, 
but other members of the genus give the same reaction, and its value is 
further impaired by the fact that similar red solutions are obtained with 
cottonseed and other products. 

Ground Black Pepper, since it contains both the dark tissues of the 
pericarp and spermoderm and the light -colored starchy perisperm, is of a 
dark-gray or brown-gray color. It is more pungent than white pepper, 
although the natural flavor is often mingled with an earthy or, in the case 
of fire-dried varieties, with a smoky flavor. 

The adulterants of pepper are probably more numerous and varied 
than those of any other food product, not excepting coffee. They include 
linseed meal, buckwheat hulls, nutshells (cocoanut, walnut, almond, 
hazelnut, etc.)^ mustard hulls, screenings, charcoal, cereal products, 
peas and other leguminous seeds, poppy seeds, olive stones, sawdust, 
cocoa shells, pepper hulls, mineral diluents and colors, exhausted pepper, 



5o8 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 




exhausted spices, — in fact any waste material with a not too pro- 
nounced flavor that can be easily reduced to a powder. It is a common 
practice to mix light- and dark-colored adulterants in order to better 
imitate the color of the genuine product, and also to 
add a little cayenne pepper to give pungency to 
fraudulent mixtures which otherwise would be 
nearly tasteless. Nutshells, sawdust, buckwheat 
hulls, cocoa shells, pepper shells, and other fibrous 
or woody materials have much higher amounts of 
crude fiber but less starch than genuine pepper, 
while the reverse is true of most starchy adulterants. 
The ether extract of pepper consists largely of pip- 
erin, a nitrogenous substance, whereas the extract 
of some of the adulterants contains no appreciable 
amounts of nitrogen. As Aclieen pepper contains 
a considerable amount of loose shells and conse- 
cjuently a high percentage of ash and fiber, it is 
frequently not possible either by microscopic exami- 
nation or chemical analysis to distinguish this 
grade in powder form from a better grade adul- 
terated with pepper shells. Legal standards of composition are designed 
to exclude pepper unfit for consumption, whether ground from a very 
low grade of berry or willfully mixed with shells. 

White Pepper is usually prepared from the ripe berry, the globular 
corns, although deprived of the outer layers of the pericarp, being usually 
somewhat larger than black peppercorns and free from wrinkles. They 
are light gray, lusterless, and delicately veined with the pericarp bundles. 
Penang white pepper is coated with a gray substance consisting largely 
of carbonate of lime. The portion of the pericarp removed consists of 
the epicarp, the hypodermal stone cells, and the outer mesocarp up to 
the bundles. Except for these layers, the microscopic elements are the 
same as in black pepper, any difference due to degree of ripeness being 
too slight for detection. As the powder is of a light-gray color, the adul- 
terants used are light-colored materials, such as wheat flour, maize meal, 
ground rice, buckwheat flour, and various other cereal products, ground 
peas and other legumes, white poppy seeds, ground olive stones, cayenne 
pepper, also gypsum and other white mineral substances. Cereal adul- 
terants do not greatly alter the percentage of starch, but are readily de- 
tected by the characters of the starch granules and the tissues. Olive 



Fig. 431. Black Pepper 
Hairs from spindle 

(MOELLER.) 



PEPPER. 509 

Stones increase the crude fiber and diminish the starch. White and 
black pepper are both characterized by the nitrogen of the ether extract, 
due to piperin. 

Decorticated White Pepper, consisting of peppercorns deprived of all 
the coats of the pericarp and spermoderm, is made from black pepper in 
machines of special construction. The powder is liglit yellow, of a deli- 
cate fragrance, and contains, in appreciable amount, only the elements 
of the perisperm. Because of the lack of other elements, adulteration 
is the more readily detected. 

Pepper Shells, obtained in the manufacture of white pepper, being 
cheap, pungent, and difficult of detection, are frequently mixed with 
ground black pepper. They show a preponderance of stone cells under 
the microscope, and contain a high percentage of fiber and ash, the latter 
being due largely to adhering dirt. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674; Berg (3); Blyth (5); Fluckiger (11); 
Greenish (14); Hanausek, T. F. (10, 16); Hassall (19); Leach (25); Mace (26); 
Moeller (29, 30, 31, 32); Planchon et Collin (34); Schimper (37); Tschirch u. Oesterle 
(40); ViUiers et Collin (42); Vogl (43, 45). 

Andouard: Falsification du poivre par le Galanga. Jour, pharm. chim. 1890, 21, 585. 
Beythien: Ueber Gewiirze. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm. 1903, 6, 957. 
Bertarelli: Verfalschung von weissen Pfefferkornern. Atti della Societa Piemontese 

d'Igiene. 1900-01, 7. 
Bertschinger : Kunstliche Pfefferkorner. Schw. Woch. Chem. Pharm. 1901, 39, 215, 
Bonnet: Du poivre et de ses falsifications. These E. de Ph. de Paris. 1886, 19. 
Brown: On Another New Pepper Adulterant. Analyst. 1887, 12, 89. 
Brunotti: Des fruits utiles des Piperitees. These d'agregation. Concours, 1889, 31. 
Chevreau: Recherche de la falsification du poivre par le grignon d'olives au moyen 

des sels d'aniline. Rep. de Pharm. 1889, 17, 203. 
Daels: Falsification du poivre blanc en poudre. Journ. Pharm. d'Anvers. 1904, 60, i. 
GiLLEX: ^Method nouvelle pour reconnaitre la falsification des poivres par addition de 

grignons d'olives. Bull. soc. chim. 1888, 50, 173. 
Gladhill: Commercial Pepper. Amer. Jour. Pharm. 1904, 76, 71. 
Grimaldi: Sopra una falsificazione del pepe in grani. Staz. sperim. agrar. Ital. 1901, 

34, 705. 
Hanausek, E.: Schwarzer Tellicherrypfeffer. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1888, 2, 5. 
H.^NAUSEK, T. F.: Ueber die Harz- und Oelraume in der Pfefferfrucht. Sep.-Abdr. 

aus Programm der k. k. Staatsrealschule am Schottenfelde, Wien, 1886. 
Hanausek, T. F.: Ueber die Matta. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters, Hyg. 1887, 1, 24. 
Hanausek, T.F.: Kiinstlicher Pfeffer. Ztschr. allg. osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1887, 12, 180. 
Hanausek, T. F.: Im Budapester Handel beobachtete Pfefferfalschungen. Ztschr. 

Nahr.-Unters. Hyg, 1889, 3, 7,3, 58. 



5IO SP/CES AND CONDIMENTS. 

Hanausek, T. F.: Kunstliche Pfefferkorner. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1889, 3, 31. 
Hanausek, T. F.: Die Pfefferfruchtspindeln. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1889, 3, 59. 
Hanausek, T. F.: Ueber einige, gegenwartig im Wiener Handel Vorkommende 

Gewiirzfalschungen. Ztschr. JSIahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1894, 8, 95. 
Hanausek, T. F.: Ueber den schwarzen Pfeffer von Mangalore. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.- 

Genussm. 1898, 1, 153. 
Hanausek, T. F.: Ueber eine neue Pfefferfalschung. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm. 

1898, 1, 490. 
Hanausek, T. F.: OHvenkerne und ihre Erkennung im Pfefferpulver. Pharm. Cen- 

tralh. 1885, 25, 261. 
Hebert: Moyen facile et rapide de reconnaitre la falsification du poivre. Journ. 

pharm. chim. 1891, 23, 283. 
Jumeau: Note sur les falsification du poivre en poudre. Journ. pharm. chim. 1889, 

20, 442. 

Kundrat: Das neueste Verfalschungsmittel fur Pfeffer. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 
1895, 9, 104. 

Landrin: Falsification du poivre a I'aide des grignons d'olive. Jour. Pharm. 10, 194. 

Mainsbrecq: Falsification du poivre. Bull. Assoc. Beige Chim. 1901, 15, 335. 

Martelli: Nachweis der Verfaschungen des gemahlenen Pfeffers. Ztschr. Nahr.- 
Unters. Hyg. 1895, 9, 205. 

Mennechet: Sur une falsification du poivre par les fruits du Myrsine Ajricana L. et 
Embelia ribes Burm. Jour, pharm. chim. 1901, 14, 557. 

Meyer, Arthur: Die mikroskopische Untersuchung von Pflanzenpulver, speziell iiber 
den Nachweis von Buchweizenmehl in Pfefferpulver und iiber die Unterscheidung 
des Maismehls von dem Buchweizenmehl. Arch. Pharm. 1883, 21, 911. 

Moeller: Ein neues Verfalschungsmittel fiir Pfeffer. Rep. anal. Chem. 1886, 409. 

Moeller: Matta. Pharm. Post, 1886, 365. 

MoLiNARi: Nachweis von Olivenkernen im Pfeffer. Rev. chim. anal. appl. 1898, 6, 6. 

MoRPURGO: Delle Spezie. Trieste, 1904. 

Nestler: Ueber Verfalschungen von Macis, Pfeffer und Safran. Ztschr. Unters. 
Nahr. Genussm. 1903, 6, 1033. 

Neuss: Zur Pfefferuntersuchung. Pharm. Ztg. 1885, 30, 26. 

Pabst: Nachweis einer Pfefferfalschung durch OHvenkerne mittels Anilinsalzen. Rev. 
internat. falsificat. 1889, 3, 8. 

Pabst: Recherches des grignons d'olives dans le poivre. Journ. pharm. chim. 1890, 

21, 645. 

Paolini: Sopra una nuova falsificazione del pepe comune. Staz. sperim. agrar. Ital. 

1901, 3-1, 966. 
Peinemann: Beitrage zur pharmakognostischen und chemischen Kenntniss der Cube ben 

und der als Verfalschung derselben beobachteten Piperaceenfriichte. Arch. 

Pharm. 1896, 234, 204. 
Planchon: Note sur le poivre et les grignons d'olive. Jour, pharm. chim. 1885, 11, 641. 
Rau: Ueber neuere Verfalschungen des gemahlenen Pfeffers. Ztschr. offentl. Chem. 

1900, 6, 243. 
Raumer und Spaeth: Falschungen von Gewiirzen und anderen Nahrungsmitteln. 

Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm. 1902, 5, 409. 



PEPPER. LONG PEPPER. 511 

Rimmington: Pepper Adulteration and Pepper Analysis. Analyst. 1888, 13, 81. 
Spaeth: Ueber ein neues Verfalschungsmittel des gemahlenen Pfeffers. Forschber. 

Lebensra. Hyg. 1893, 1, 37. 
Teyxeira e Ferruccio: Pepe naturale ed artificiale. Boll. Chim. Farm. 1900, 

39, 534- 
Uhl: Zur Untersuchung des Pfeffers. Forschungsb. Lebensm. Hyg. 1886, 127. 
Wender; Kunstpfeffer. Ztschr. allg. osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1887, 25, 145. 

LONG PEPPER. 

Two species yield the long pepper of commerce, Piper officinarum 
DC, grown in Java, the Philippines, India, and other parts of the East 
and P. longum L., sparingly cultivated in India, the former species being 
by far the most important. 

The inflorescence is in a dense spike which ripens into a dark-gray 
or black compound elongated catkin-like fruit consisting of numerous 
consolidated berries. The surface bears spiral rows of small protuber- 
ances, which are the exposed outer ends of the individual berries. Each 
compound fruit is 2-6 cm. long and 4-7 mm. broad in the case of P. offici- 
narum, somewhat shorter and thicker in the case of P. longum. 

HISTOLOGY. 

After soaking over night in water, the compound fruit is in excellent 
condition for cutting longitudinal and transverse sections, corresponding 
respectively to transverse and longitudinal sections of the individual 
berries. These sections should be soaked in Javelle water to swell out 
the layers of the spermoderm and stained. 

Pericarp. Owing to the consolidation of the lower portions of adjoin- 
ing pericarps, the cpicarp and hypoderm are developed only on the outer 
end of each individual. 

1. The Epicarp is of polygonal cells with no distinctive characters. 

2. Hypodermal Stone Cells do not form a continuous layer, but are 
scattered here and there through the outer cell layers. A few of these 
stone cells also occur in the middle layers of the consolidated pericarp 
tissue. 

3. The Outer Mesocarp, composed of parenchyma cells (no oil cells), 
contains numerous small starch grains and traces of chlorophyl. 

4. Inner Mesocarp. The mesocarp cells show little differentiation up 
to the inner two or three layers, where they grade into the sclerenchy- 
matized, thickened, porous cells of the endocarp. This transition is 



512 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 

brought out by safranin after bleaching with Javelle water. The inner 
layers contain no starch and are none of them typical oil cells. 

5. Endocarp. Most characteristic of all the tissues are the large, 
longitudinally elongated, porous, sclerenchyma cells of this layer, which 
are radically different from the small beaker cells of pepper or the 
strongly thickened stone cells of cubebs. They form striking objects 
in tangential or surface sections, especially after staining, and in trans- 
verse or longitudinal section are conspicuous because of the thickened 
inner walls and the decrease in thickness of the radial walls from within 
outward. 

6. An Inner Layer of beaded cells with slightly undulating walls may 
be found by examining the inner surface or the fragments obtained by 
scraping. These cells or their inner portions also occur on the spermo- 
derm. It is probable that this layer belongs to the pericarp and corre- 
sponds to the cells Tschirch and Oestcrle find in unripe black pepper. 
Those cells of ripe black pepper which they regard as these pericarp 
cells in a later stage of development appear to belong to the spermo- 
derm. 

Spermoderm. Cross-sections show little detail until treated with 
Javelle water, after which the structure is clearly analogous to that of 
black pepper and cubebs. 

1. The Outer Epidermis, as may be seen after treating either cross- 
sections or surface preparations as described, has swollen outer and 
radial walls even more striking than those of black pepper and cubebs. 
Surface preparations show that the cells are longitudinally elongated, 
12-20 [1 broad. 

2. The Middle Coat, consisting mostly of one or two layers, but at the 
base of a number of layers, has cells with swollen walls much like those 
of the outer epidermis. 

3. The Pigment Cells are readily found in transverse or surface sec- 
tions, and after removal of the pigment by Javelle water, are seen to be 
distinctly reticulated, the radial walls appearing beaded in surface view. 

Perisperm. i. Hyaline Layer. The swollen, structureless outer 
membrane, the so-called " hyaline layer " regarded by many authors 
as the inner spermoderm, is the same as is found in pepper and other 
members of the genus. 

2. The Aleurone Cells are small and contain little or no starch. 

3. Starch Parenchyma, with no evidence of oil cells, form the inner 
perisperm. The polygonal or rounded starch grains vary from 2-10 fi, 



LONG PEPPER. CUBEBS. 513 

being usually about 4 //, or a little larger than those of black pepper. 
Concentrated sulphuric acid produces a deep carmine color due to piperin. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Long pepper has been repeatedly detected by English analysts as an 
adulterant or substitute for black pepper. It is distinguished by the 
somewhat larger starch grains, and especially by the large, elongated, 
moderately sclerenchymatizcd cells of the endocarp, and the absence 
of beaker cells and oil cells. The powder also has a distinctive odor. 

CUBEBS. 

Cubcbs, the fruit of a vine {Piper Cuheha L.), although properly classed 
with the drugs, are of interest to the food microscopist because they are 
analogous in structure to the fruits of black and long pepper. At the 
present time cubebs are seldom used as spices, but the exhausted berries 
are sometimes mixed with black pepper as an adulterant. 

The plant grows in Sumatra, Java, and other islands of the East Indies. 

The dark-brown, wrinkled berry is about the same size as a black 
peppercorn, which it further resembles m morphological structure. Unlike 
black pepper, the berry is borne on a stem 6-8 mm. long, and the seed, 
often only partially developed, is not united with the sides of the peri- 
carp. Among the constituents are volatile aromatic principles, and cube- 
bin, a non-volatile crystalline substance related to piperin. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Although cubeb and pepper berries are analogous in microscopic 
structure, certain of the elements are strikingly different. 

Pericarp, i. The Epicarp of small polygonal cells is hardly dis- 
tinguishable from the corresponding coat of pepper, although the cell- 
contents are usually of a lighter color. 

2. The Hypodcrmal Stone Cells, 24-40 n in diameter, are not usually 
radially elongated and are for the most part in a single layer. 

3. The Outer Mesocarp is composed of parenchyma cells contain- 
ing small starch granules (2-6 p) and oil cells containing crystals of 
cubebin in addition to fatty matter. 

4. Compressed Cells form that portion of the mesocarp through which 
ramify the bundles. 



514 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 

5. The Inner Mesocarp of several layers of parenchyma cells inter- 
spersed with oil cells contains no starch grains. 

6. The Endocarp, or inner stone-cell layer, is much more strongly 
developed than the corresponding beaker cells of pepper. It consists 
of one or more layers of large isodiametric or radially elongated stone 
cells (often 80 /i) with walls thickened on all sides. 

']. An Inner Layer of irregular cells lies between the endocarp and 
spermoderm. In cross-section this layer is scarcely distinguishable, but 
on examining the inner surface of the pericarp or the outer surface of 
the spermoderm, the thin beaded side walls are clearly evident. 

Spermoderm. Cross-sections show the same number of layers as is 
found in black pepper. 

1. Outer Epidermis. The longitudinally elongated cells, often 150- 
200 n long and 25-50 /i wide, are much larger than any of the elements 
of the spermoderm of pepper. In surface view they are recognized, after 
heating with alkali or after bleaching with Javelle water and staining 
with safranin, by their size, more or less rectangular form, and swollen 
brown walls (double walls 10-15 [i). 

2. A Middle Coat of one or two cell layers is present in most parts 
•of the seed. The narrow cells are elongated and the walls are swollen 
after treatment with the reagents named. 

3. Inner Epidermis. Irregular cells, often longitudinally elongated, 
with walls of even thickness or faintly beaded, form a dark-brown pig- 
ment layer not unlike the corresponding cells of both black and long 
pepper. Like these latter, as may be seen in longitudinal section, they 
are tabular except near the micropyle, where they are radially elongated. 

Perisperm. i. A Hyaline Layer forms a thickened, apparently struc- 
tureless membrane enclosing the perisperm, the embryo, and endosperm; 
the two latter being situated in a small hollow at the apex. 

2. Aleurone Cells constitute several outer layers. 

3. Starch Parenchyma intermingled with yellow-green oil cells make 
up the heart of the perisperm. The starch grains are rounded or polyg- 
onal, 3-12 [i in diameter, and are closely packed in the cells. Sections 
mounted in concentrated sulphuric acid take on a deep carmine color. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The powder is distinguished from ground pepper by the larger starch 
grains, the presence of large stone cells in place of beaker cells, and the 
large cells of the middle spermoderm. The elements of the stem are 



CUBEBS. PAPRIK/1. 5 1 5 

also present, the large sclerenchymatizcd bast parenchyma being espe- 
cially noteworthy. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Meyer, A. (27); Moeller (31, 32); 
Planchon et Collin (34); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40). 
Dewere: Rechcrches sur le cubebe, etc. Ann. Soc. roy. sci. med. nat. de Bru.xelles, 

1894, 3. 
Hartwich: Weitere Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Cubeben. Arch. Pharm. 1898, 236, 

172. 
Hartwich: Cubeba Real-Enzykl. d. gas. Pharm. 2 Aufl. IV, 1905. 
Peinemann: Beitrage zur pharmakognostischen und chemischen Kenntniss der Cubeben 

und der als Verfalschung derselben beobachteten Piperaceenfriichte. Arch 

Pharm. 1896, 234, 204. 
Vogl: Falsche Cubeben. Pharm. Centralh. 1895, 36, n. 
Wevre: Ueber Cubeben und ihre Verfalschungen. Apoth.-Ztg. 1895, 10, 345. 

SOLANACEOUS FRUITS {Solanacecs). 

Cayenne pepper and paprika, the two species of capsicum used as 
spices, are characterized by the sclerenchyma cells of the epicarp and 
endocarp, the yellow or red oil drops of the mesocarp, and the curious 
intestine cells of the spermoderm. Starch in appreciable amount is 
absent. 

PAPRIKA. 

Various species of the genus Capsicum yield pungent fruits widely 
different in form, size, and color, which serve both for seasoning food and 
in medicine. Throughout the Continent, the large fruit of C. annuum L., 
known as paprika, also as Hungarian, Spanish, Turkish, or Indian pepper, 
are chiefly used; in England and i\merica the small but exceedingly 
pungent peppers of C. jastigiatum Bl. and C. frutescens L., are more highly 
prized for grinding, although peppers of numerous varieties of C. annuum 
are grown for pickling either green or ripe. 

Paprika is cultivated in Hungary, Spain, Italy, France, and Turkey. 
The red or yellow shining fruit, appearing as if lacquered, is inflated, 
5-10 cm. long, and from half to three-fourths as broad. The pericarp, 
' even before drying, is but a few millimeters thick, the bulk of the fruit 
consisting of the fruit cavity divided at the base into two or three com- 
paitments. Numerous flattened seeds (3-5 mm.), shaped much like the 
human ear, are borne in the lower part of the fruit on the central placenta, 
and in the upper part on the partitions which here only extend part way to 



5i6 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



the center. The embryo, with a long radicle and still longer, narrow 
cotyledons, is coiled within the endosperm in such a way that the radicle 
points toward the elongated (2 mm.) hilum. The hollow stem, 3-4 mm. 
in diameter, and the small, green, pentagonal or hexagonal calyx aie at- 
tached to the dried fruit as found on the market. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Any of the large garden peppers or the dried whole paprika fruit 
may be employed for studying the histology. 

The Fruit Stem (Fig. 432) has an epidermis and outer cortical layer, 
like the corresponding layers of the calyx in structure. Wood elements 
I 





Fig. 432. Paprika {Capsicum an- FiG. 433. Paprika. Surface view of calyx show- 
nuum). Elements of stem, b ing outer epidermis with st stoma, and p spongy 

bast iiber; &^ bast parenchyma; parenchyma. X160. (Moeller.) 

/ wood fibers; hp wood paren- 
chyma; ^ pitted vessels. X 160. 
(Moeller.) 

form a continuous hollow cylinder surrounded by a narrow, interrupted 
bast ring. The elements of the wood, consisting of pitted and reticulated 
vessels, libriform fibers, and wood parenchyma, are strongly thickened, 
while the bast contains a characteristic element in the form of broad (up 
to 50 /O, flexible fibers with wide cavities. 



PAPRIKA. 



517 



Calyx. Sections of the dry material swell considerably in water, dis- 
playing an uncommonly large-celled tissue. 

1. The Outer Epidermis (Fig. 433), as seen in surface view, consists 
of large, flat, moderately thick-walled, sharply-polygonal cells, with a few 
stomata. 

2. Mesophyl (Fig. 434). Adjoining the outer epidermis is a single 
layer of cells in close contact with each other, and a similar layer adjoins 
the inner epidermis, but in the middle layers the cells are larger and thinncr- 




FlG. 434. Paprika. / cross section of calyx showing t hairs of inner (upper) epidermis 
and gfb fibro-vascular bundle. II inner (upper) epidermis of calyx, in surface view. 
(TscHiRCH and Oesterle.) 



waUed, forming a spongy parenchyma. Through the inner layers run 
the fibro-vascular bundles. Chlorophyl is present in the hypodermal 
layers, but not in the spongy parenchyma. 

3. The Inner Epidermis (Fig. 434) has moderately large cells with wavy 
walls but no stomata. Characteristic are the peculiar glandular hairs. 
These are short, two or more celled, with single or compound end cells 
containing red-brown resinous bodies. Noteworthy is the fact that they 
are not, like most hairs, simply epidermal cells prolonged beyond the 
surface, but they spring from the middle of much broader cells after the 
manner of root-hairs. 

Pericarp, Outer Wall. In cutting sections, the material should be 



5i8 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



held between pieces of pith or embedded in paraffine and care taken to 
avoid tearing away the inner layers. 

I. Epicarp (Fig. 435, epi; Fig. 436). This layer, in cross-section, 
has a cuticularized and thickened outer wall 15-20 /( thick. In surface 
view the cells arc polygonal, moderately thin-walled (double walls 3-8 /x) 



mes 




Fic. 435. Paprika. Pericarp in cross section, epi epicarp; mes mesocarp with oil glo- 
bules, and fv fibro-vascular bundle; g giant cells; end endocarp. (Moeller.) 

beaded, 45-95 fJ- in diameter. They are not, as in Cayenne pepper, 
rectangular and arranged in rows. 

2. Hypoderm. Several layers of collenchyma further distinguish 
paprika from Cayenne pepper. As was first shown by Molisch, the walls 
of these layers, as well as of the epicarp, are suberizcd, and become yellow 
with alkali. Contained in both the hypoderm and mesocarp in the fresh 
condition are oil drops and red chromoplastids which give the fruit its 



PAPRIKA. 



519 



characteristic color. Viewed in water, the oil drops from the dried fruit 
are of a bright orange or red color due to the solution of the coloring 




Fig. 436. Paprika. Epicarp in surface view, showing narrow grooves. (MoELLER.) 

matter of the chroriioplastids, and are of great aid in diagnosis. Concen- 
trated sulphuric acid imparts an indigo-blue color to the globules, a reaction 
due to the action of the acid on the coloring matter. Exceedingly minute 




Fig. 437. Paprika. Elements of pericarp in surface view, ep epicarp; coll collenchyma; 
f» endocarp with 5i sclerenchyma cells. X160. (Moeller.) 

Starch grains are occasionally found in some of the cells, particularly if 
the fruit is not fully ripe. 



520 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



3. Mesocarp (Fig. 435, mes). The cells in the middle portion of the 
pericarp are thin-walled and not characteristic except for their contents. 
Through these cells run the bundles. 

4. Giant Cells (Fig. 435, g). Adjoining the endocarp is a layer of 
cells of enormous size, often 1-2 mm., separated from each other by smaller 
cells. They are best seen in carefully prepared transverse sections. 

These cells are evident to the naked eye 
on the inner surface of the pericarp as 
longitudinally elongated blisters (Fig. 

438). 

5. Endocarp (Figs. 435 and 437). 
The most characteristic layer of the 
pericarp is the endocarp, made up over 
the giant cells of groups of scleren- 
chyma elements and in other parts of 
thin-walled cells, both kinds of cells be- 
ing more or less elongated and quadri- 
lateral with wavy outline. Penetrating 
the radial walls of the sclerenchyma 
cells are distinct pores which broaden 
at the middle lamella. 

Pericarp, Partition Walls. Cross- 
sections of the partition walls show that the mesocarp consists of thin- 
walled elements of no especial interest, while the endocarp cells are more 
or less thickened. As was discovered by Arthur Meyer, the cuticle here 
and there separates from the cells, forming blister-like cavities in which 
are tabular or prismatic crystals of capsaicin, the pungent principle of 
the fruit. If alkali is run under the cover-glass, the crystals at first dis- 
appear, but others of octahedral form, the alkali compound, take their 
place. If these blisters are opened and the minutest portion of the con- 
tents transferred to the tongue by means of a needle, an intense 
burning sensation is experienced. In the fully ripe fruit this pungent 
principle is distributed throughout the pericarp and also the seeds. 

The Spermoderm (Figs. 439 and 440) has an outer and inner epidermis, 
and between them a parenchymatous layer several cells thick, all of which 
are evident in sections cut from the dry seed. 

I. The Outer Epidermis (ep) of highly characteristic elements, has 
been carefully studied by Arthur Meyer, T. F. Hanausek, and others. 
Seen in cross-section, the outer wall is a cellulose band of even thick- 




FiG. 438. Paprika. Endocarp and giant 
cells in surface view. (Moeller.) 



PAPRIKA. 



521 



ness (12-20 fx), covered without by a thin cuticle and within by an equally 
thin sclerenchymatized lining, while the radial and inner walls are enor- 
mously but irregularly thickened and sclerenchymatized. From the inner 
wall wart-like protuberances extend into the cell cavity. The radial 
walls diminish in thickness from within outward, resembling buttresses. 
Where they meet the outer wall, they are pierced by pores which, in 
cross-section, appear as slits between finger-like divisions. At the edges 
of the seed, where the cells often have a radial diameter upwards of 
200 /jf, these pores occur in the greatest 
numbers. In surface view the appear- 
ance differs according to the depth of the 
focus. On the inner wall we see warts, 
pores, and wrinkles ; on the outer, an even 
structure bounded by the curiously sinuous 
and porous radial walls. The appear- 





FiG. 439. Paprika. Outer portion of seed in cross 
section. Spermoderm consists of ep epidermis, p 
parenchyma, and inner layers of compressed paren- 
chyma; £ endosperm. X160. (MoELLER.) 



Fig. 440. Paprika, Spermoderm 
in surface view. ep epider- 
mis; p parenchyma. X160. 

(MoELLER.) 



ance of the latter is best described by the term "intestine cells," first 
applied to this layer by Moeller. 

2. Middle Layers (p). Thin- walled cells, in the dry seed more or 
less compressed, form several indistinct layers. 

3. An Inner Epidermis, also of thin-walled elements, in cross-section, 
is clearly seen to be in close contact with the endosperm. 

The Endosperm (Fig. 439, E) consists of moderately thick-walled 
cells containing aleurone grains and fat -as reserve material. A crystal- 
loid is present in each of the aleurone grains. 

Embryo. Of little interest to us are the delicate tissues of the em- 
bryo. The cell-contents are the same as in the endosperm, except that 
the aleurone grains arc somewhat smaller. 



522 SPICES /iND CONDIMENTS. 



DIAGNOSIS. 



The powder is either red, yellow, or brown, according to the variety 
or the method of preparation, and the oil drops, seen under the micro- 
scope, are of the same color as the fruit. Treatment with concentrated 
sulphuric acid imparts a blue color to the oil drops. 

The endocarp (Fig. 437) of elongated, sinuous cells, some scleren- 
chymatized {st), others thin-walled {en), and the curious intestine cells 
(Fig. 440, ep) of the outer epidermis of the spermoderm, are the tissue ele- 
ments most easily found and identified. Starch is seldom present in 
noticeable amount, and never in the form of large grains. Tissues of 
the stem and calyx should not be overlooked. The epicarp cells (Fig. 436) 
are polygonal, have moderately thick, beaded walls, and are easily dis- 
tinguished from the quadrilateral cells in rows of the corresponding layer 
of Cayenne pepper. 

The adulterants of paprika are various products of cereals and oil 
seeds, nutshells, sawdust (particularly of red sandalwood (Fig. 28) and 
other red or brown woods), turmeric, brick-dust, etc. If the material 
is not of a suitable color it is often dyed with coal-tar colors, or mixed 
with a pigment. 

The color of red sandalwood is extracted by treatment with alkali; 
the- coal-tar dyes commonly employed are readily transferred to a bit 
of woollen cloth, previously heated with very dilute soda, by boiling with 
I per cent solution of potassium bisulphate — a method first devised by 
Arata for testing wines. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Greenish (14); Hanausek, T. 
F. (10, 16, 17, 48); Harz (18); Hassall (19); Leach (25); Mace (26); Meyer, A. (27, 28); 
Moeller (29, 30, 31, 32); Planchon et Collin (34); Schimper (37); Tschirch u. Oesterle 
(40); Villiers et ColHn (42); Vogl (43, 4S)- 
Hartwich: Ueber die Epidermis der Samenschale von Capsicum. Pharm Post. 1894 

27, 609, 633. 
Hartwich: Ueber die Samenschale der Solanaceen. Vjschr. d. naturf. Ges. in Zurich. 

1896, 41, Jubelband II, 366. 
Hanausek, T. F.: Ueber die Samenhautepidermis der Capsicum-Arten. Ber. d. 

deutsch. botan. Ges. 1888, 6, 329. 
Lohde: Ueber die Entwicklungsgesch. und den Bau einiger Samenschalen. Dissertation, 

Leipzig, 1874, 26. 
Meyer, Arthur: Der'Sitz der scharfschmeckenden Substanz im spanischen Pfefifer. 

Pharm. Ztg. 1889, 31, 130. 



523 



6, 215. 
'. "> 364- 



1893, "• 



PAPRIKA. CAYENNE PEPPER. 

MiKLOwx: Adulteration of Spanish Pepper. Weekly Drug News i 
Molisch: Collenchymatische Korke. Ber. d.deutsch. botan. Ges i^ 
MoRPURGO: Delle Spezie. Trieste, 1904. 
Vedrodi : Untersuchung des Paprikapfeffers. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg 

CAYENNE PEPPER. 

This spice, also known as red pepper and chillies, is much more pun- 
gent than paprika and is preferred to the latter in England and the 
United States. It is .obtained from Capsicum jastigiatum Bl. (C. mini- 
mum Roxb.), C. jrutescens and other small-fruited species grown in various 
parts of Africa, the East Indies, and tropical America. 

Zanzibar Cayenne pepper, one of the best grades, consists of small 
pods 0.5 to 2 cm. long, of a dull-red color, together with slender, more 
or less detached stems. The seeds are but 3-4 mm. in diameter. 

Bombay peppers, known also as capsicums, are an inferior grade 
of Cayenne pepper, said to come from the vicinity of the river Niger in 
Africa, not as the name would indicate, from India. The dull yellow 




Fig. 441. Cayenne Pepper {Capsicum frutescens). Epicarp in surface view, x-x x'-x' 
HrNASsE"? '' ^^'^^''"^^ horizontal walls; v abnormally thickened cell. (T. F. 

or brown fruits arc larger than Zanzibar peppers (2-3 cm. long and nearly 
I cm. broad), but do not differ from them in structure. 

Japan Cayenne peppers are about the same size as the Zanzibar 
product, but are brighter in color and more glossy, akhough not so pun- 
gent. Their anatomical structure would indicate that they are fruits 
of a different species. 



524 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 

HISTOLOGY. 

While the structure is analogous to that of paprika, certain elements 
are strikingly different, thus enabling the microscopist to distinguish 
sharply between the two species. 

The Pericarp of the dry fruit is hardly thicker than a sheet of writing- 
paper. 

1. Epicarp (Figs. 441 and 442). In surface view this coat is radically 
different from that of paprika. The cells are usually quadrilateral, more 
or less wavy in outline, and what is most noticeable, are arranged in dis- 
tinct longitudinal rows. They are smaller than those of paprika, being 
but 20-55 /" i^ diameter, and have indistinctly beaded walls, which (double) 
are 3-5 /i thick. 

2. Hypoderm. Cross-sections show that a hypodermal coUenchyma 
of suberised cells is entirely absent, the character of the tissues chang- 




FlG. 442. Cayenne Pepper {Capsicum fasiigiatum). Epicarp in surface view, Xiio. 

(Leach.) 

ing abruptly from the thick, sclerenchymatous epidermis to the thin- 
walled tissues of the mesocarp. This distinction, however marked in 
cross-section, is not of service in the examination of the powder. 

3. The Mesocarp, and 4. The Giant Cells are quite like the corre- 
sponding layers of paprika. 

5. The Endocarp Cells of the two species are also very similar, but 
are somewhat smaller in Cayenne pepper. 



CAYENNE PEPPER. 525 

Spermoderm. i. The Epidermal Cells are of the same general form 
as those of paprika, but the inner sclerenchymatized lamella of the 
outer wall is more strongly developed than the middle lamella, whereas in 
paprika the middle lamella alone is conspicuous. In surface view the 
cells are somewhat smaller than the epidermal cells of paprika. 

2. The Middle Layer, and 3. The Inner Epidermis are not character- 
istic. 

The Endosperm and Embryo agree in structure with the correspond- 
ing parts of paprika. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

In cross-sections the lack of sclerenchymatized coUenchyma in the 
hypoderm, the thinner mesocarp, and the broader inner lamella of the 
outer wall of the spermoderm serve to distinguish this fruit from paprika. 
These distinctions are of no service in the examination of the powder, 
but the highly characteristic epicarp cells (Figs. 441 and 442) suffice for 
positive identification. 

Characteristic elements common to both fruits are the oil drops of 
a red or orange color, the thick- and thin-walled cells of the endocarp 
(Fig. 437, st, en), and the outer epidermal cells (Fig. 440, ep) of the sper- 
moderm (intestine cells). 

The adulterants of both powders are the same and are enumerated 
under paprika. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Greenish (14); Hanausek, T. F. (10, 16 
17, 48); Hassal (19); Moeller (29, 30, 31, 32); Planchon et Collin (34); Vogl (43, 45). 

See also Bibliography of Paprika p. 522 
Hanausek, T. F.: Zur Charakteristik des Cayennepfeffers. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters Hyg. 

1893, 297. 
ISTVANFFi: Zur Charakteristik des Cayennepfeffers. Bot. Centralbl. 1893, 3, 468. 
Wallis: The Structure of Capsicum minimum. Pharm. Jour. 1901, 13, 552. 
Wallis: The Structure of Japanese Chillies. Pharm. Jour. 1902, 69, 3. 
Wallis : Capsici Fructus. Pharm. Jour. 1897, 59, 467. 



526 SPICES y4ND CONDIMENTS. 



MYRTACEOUS FRUITS (Afyr^acec^) . 

Allspice is the only fruit of this family of importance as a spice. Cloves, 
the leaf bud of a myrtaceous plant, is described on p. 397. 

ALLSPICE 

Although most of the plants producing spices are natives of the East, 
the tree yielding allspice, pimenta, or Jamaica pepper, {Pimenta offi- 
cinalis Lindl.), is an American species, growing wild in the West Indies, 
South America and Mexico, and extensively cultivated in Jamaica. Its 
fine form, abundant, shining evergreen foliage, and delightful fragrance 
combine to make it an attractive object in tropical gardens. 

Tobasco or Mexican allspice, is a large-berried variety of P. officinalis, 
regarded by some as a separate species. Crown allspice (Poivre de The- 
bet), the fruit of Pimenta acris Sw., with berries 8-10 mm. long, is also 
gathered in tropical America. Both of these have practically the same 
structure as common allspice. 

The fruit at full maturity is a two-celled, less often one- or three-celled, 
dark purple berry 5-8 mm. in diameter, crowned with a four-toothed 
calyx; each cell contains a plano-convex, chocolate-colored seed. The 
spice of commerce consists of the berries picked when fully formed, but 
still green, and dried in the sun. The berries are dark brown with a 
rough surface and have a flavor supposed to resemble a mixture of cloves 
with other spices, hence the English name allspice. 

The seeds consist of a brown spermoderm and a snail-like, spirally- 
coiled embryo with a long thick radicle and minute cotyledons. They 
contain from 3-6 per cent of a volatile oil, and are therefore but about 
one-quarter as strong as cloves, the product of a tree of the same family. 

HISTOLOGY. 

After soaking in water, whole berries and seeds removed from the 
berries, separate sections are prepared of the pericarp and spermoderm. 

Pericarp (Figs. 443-445). The outer wall of the pericarp, which 
differs somewhat in structure from the partitions between the cells, is 
first examined. 

I. Epicarp Cells (Fig. 444, ep) of notably small size, containing a 
dark-brown material, and here and there well developed stomata, form 



ALLSPICE. 



527 



the outer layers of the pericarp. Hairs up to 200 [i long, characterized 
by their thick walls, and in their outer portions by their exceedingly 
narrow lumens, are scattered over the surface, particularly in the neigh- 
borhood of the calyx teeth. 

2. The Outer Mesocarp with Oil Cavities, forming about one-quarter 
of the thickness of the pericarp, should first be studied in cross-section. 
The ground tissue consists of small thin-walled cells somewhat larger 



-oil 




St 



Fig. 443. Allspice {Pimenta officinalis). Outer wall of pericarp in cross section, oil 
oil ceils; st stone cells of mesocarp. (Moeller.) 

than those in the epicarp, those about the oil cavities forming one or 
more concentric layers. The oil cavities (Fig. 443, oil) are rounded sacs, 
up to 200 IX in diameter, similar to those occurring in cloves. Over 
these the epicarp and mesocarp are somewhat distended, forming the 
wart-like irregularities seen on the surface of the fruit. 



528 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 






st 



3. The Inner Mesocarp with numerous Stone-Cells (Fig. 443, 5/) makes 
up the major part of the pericarp. The cells of the ground tissue increase 
in size from without inward, and are either empty or contain formless 

brown masses or else crystal clusters of cal- 
cium oxalate. The stone cells are irregular 
in shape and have colorless walls more or 
less strongly thickened, in which branching 
pores and concentric markings are conspicu- 
ous. They are distributed through the par- 
enchymatous ground tissue, being especially 
numerous in the inner layers, where they 
form a nearly continuous coat one or more 
cells thick. 

4. Compressed Cells in several layers line 
the cavity of the berry. In surface view 
these cells, particularly those in the inner 
layer, are polygonal in form. 
We find in the parchment -like partition walls epidermal layers of 
polygonal cells, a more or less obliterated ground tissue containing crys- 
tal clusters, and distributed through the ground tissue numerous fibro- 
vascular bundles and occasional stone cells (Fig. 445). 

Spermoderm (Fig. 446). Cross-sections show that this layer is thin 
on the edcres of the seed, but on the broad sides forms thick cushions. 




Fig. 444. Allspice. Surface view 
of ep epicarp and si oil cells. 

X160. (MOELLER.) 





Fig. 445. Allspice. Elements of partition wall in surface view. X i6o. (Moeller.) 



1. The Outer Epidermis {ep) is of narrow elongated cells. 

2. The Middle Layers (p) are characterized by the pigment cells of 
irregular form with contents of a clear port-wine color, which are readily 



ALLSPICE. 



529 



found in the powdered spice. It is these cells that form the greater part 
of the thickened portion on the sides of the seed. Fibro-vascular bundles 
of the raphe and its branches ramify in the inner layers. 

3. An Inner Epidermis of elongated cells is seen in sur ace view, 

Vogl notes that the spermoderm is divided into an outer coat including 

the pigment cells and bundles, and an inner coat of but a few cell layers. 

As the inner coat is not evident in all seeds or in all parts of the same 




Fig. 446. Allspice. Spermoderm in surface view, ep epidermis; p brown parenchyma 

(port wine cells). (Moeller.) 

seed, it is possible that it does not belong to the spermoderm, but is a 
remnant of the endosperm or perisperm. 

Embryo (Fig. 447). On soaking seeds for a day or two in ij per cent 
caustic-soda solution, the spermoderm may be removed from the em- 
bryo. Under a lens the latter is seen to consist of a long radicle coiled 
in a snail-like spiral of two turns, diminishing in size from the thick lower 
end near the hilum of the seed to the upper end bearing the minute coty- 
ledons. Cross-sections of the seed pass through the radicle in two or 
more places and may also pass through the cotyledons. By far the 
larger part of the seed is radicle. 

I. The Epidermal Cells contain coloring matter but no starch. 



530 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 

2. Oil Cavities in a ground tissue of parenchyma, similar to those 
of the pericarp, form a ring about the radicle. 

3. Starch Cells make up the great mass of tissues. The rounded 

starch grains (up to 12 /() have a distinct hilum and are often united 

into twins or triplets. They resemble closely the starch of nutmeg and 

cinnamon. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The chief elements of allspice powder are rounded starch grains 
(Fig. 447), occurring singly, in pairs, or triplets, each with a distinct 
hilum; pigment cells (Fig. 446, p) of the spermoderm with port-wine- 
colored contents (blue or green with ferric chloride) ; white stone cells of 
the mesocarp ; oil cavities of both the mesocarp and embryo ; small epicarp 
cells; and hairs with walls strongly thickened toward the apex. 

Ground allspice is adulterated with various cheap materials, some 
of which, such as clove stems, allspice stems, ground cocoanut and other 




Fig. 447. Allspice. Starch parenchyma of cotyledon. (Moeller.) 

nut shells, cocoa shells, dried pears and red sandalwood, are naturally 
of a brownish color, and others, including cereal preparations, legumes 
etc., are colored brown either by roasting or by the addition of iron oxide, 
dyes, etc. 

Cocoanut shells are distinguished by the isodiametric and slender elon- 
gated stone cells with brown walls, occurring either isolated or in dense 
masses; cocoa shells by the epidermis, the numerous small spiral vessels, 
and the sclerenchyma cells of the spermoderm; sandalwood by the char- 
acteristic w^ood elements, and the red color extracted by alkali. Other 
adulterants, such as cereal products, legumes, oil seeds, are detected by 
the characters noted under the several seeds. 



ALLSPICE. TRUE NUTMEG AND MACE. 531 

Allspice stems are present in small amount as an accidental impurity 
in the genuine allspice of commerce; but when the amount is large, will- 
ful adulteration is to be suspected. A much more common adulterant 
of ground allspice is clove stems, which closely resemble the genuine pro- 
duct in composition and appearance. Spaeth, who has studied the com- 
parative anatomy of the stems of the two plants, finds: (i) allspice stems 
have one-celled hairs of various forms, with a globular thickening on 
one side, while clove stems are not hairy; (2) the bast fibers and wood 
elements of allspice stems are less strongly developed and of a lighter 
color than those of clove stems; (3) the stone cells of allspice stems are 
not abundan:, and for the most part are small, light-colored, and uni- 
formly thickened, whereas those of clove stems are more numerous, 
mostly yellow in color, and often thickened only on one side; (4) con- 
spicuous epidermal cells occur only in clove stems. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hanausek, T- F. (10, 16); Hassall (19); 
Leach (25); Mace (26); Moeller (29, 30, 31, 32); Planchon et CoUin (54); Schimper 
(37); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et ColHn (42); Vogl (43, 45). 
Hanausek, T. F.: Ueber einige, gegenwartig im Wiener Handel vorkommende 

Gewurzfalschungen. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1894, 8, 95. 
MoRPURGo: Delle Spezie. Trieste, 1904. 

Nevinny: Die Piment-Matta. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1887, 1, 46. 
Spaeth: Zur mikroskopischen Priifung des Pimentes. Forschber. Lebensm. Hyg. 

1895, 2, 419. 



NUTMEGS AND MACE {Myristicacecs). 

The terms nutmeg and mace in the legal sense include only the pro- 
ducts of Myristica jragrans. The products of M. argentea are inferipr 
substitutes, while Bombay mace is a worthless adulterant. 

TRUE NUTMEG AND MACE. 

True nutmeg is the seed freed from the spermoderm, and tme mace 
the arillus or seed mantle, of a tree {Myristica jragrans Houtt.) indige- 
nous to the Moluccas and introduced into Java, Borneo, Sumatra, and 
other regions of the East Indies, as well as into Trinidad, Jamaica, St. 
Vincent and other West Indian Islands. To-day, as in colonial times, 
the Banda Islands produce a large part of the world's supply of these 



532 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



spices, particularly the better grades, the term "Banda" as applied to 
either nutmeg or mace being a mark of superiority. 

In general appearance the tree resembles the orange tree, having 
shining deep-green leaves. It is dioecious, but to facilitate fertilization 
it is a common practice to graft staminate branches on the pistillate trees. 

The nutmeg fruit resembles a peach in shape and size. On ripening 
the fleshy pericarp splits into two halves, disclosing the dark-brown seed 
closely clasped by the deep-red branching arillus (Fig. 448). 

The mace is removed whole, dried in the sun, and sometimes sprinkled 





Fig. 448. Nutmeg {Myri- 
stica }ra grans), enclosed 
in mace or arillus and 
shell or spermoderm. 
Natural size. (Moeller.) 



Fig. 449. Nut- 
meg. Seed, 
natural size. 
(Moeller.) 




Fig. 45c. Nutmeg. Cross sec- 
tion showing shell (spermo- 
derm), dark veins (peris- 
perm) and starch tissue 
(endosperm). Slightly en- 
larged, "(Berg.) 



with salt to insure its keeping. When ready for the market it varies from 
a buff to a brown color according to the variety and the care taken in 
curing. The seed is also dried, after which the loose nutmeg is removed 
from the hard, dark-brown, shining spermoderm. The latter is 1-2 mm. 
in thickness, furrowed on the outer surface with the imprint of the mace, 
and marked with a band-like raphe running from the hilum at the base to 
the chalaza at the apex. The nutmeg (Fig. 449) is oval, of a cinnamon- 
brown color, and bears numerous longitudinal wrinkles on the surface, 
as well as a groove corresponding to the position of the raphe. Cross- 
sections (Fig. 450) show a beautiful marbled appearance caused by the 
dark-brown branches of the perisperm penetrating into the starchy endo- 
sperm. The relatively small embryo is situated at the base. 

It is the common practice to steep nutmegs in lime-water to prevent 
the ravages of insects as well as to improve their appearance. These 



TRUE NUTMEG AND MACE. 



533 



limed nutmegs have a coat of carbonate of lime which may be removed 
in large part by friction. Penang nutmegs are usually shipped without 
liming. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Only nutmeg and mace are usually available for study, although the 
entire fruit preserved in alcohol, and the dried seeds, including the hard 
shell or spermoderm surrounded by the mace, are sometimes obtainable 
from spice importers. 

Pericarp, i. The Epicarp consists of small polygonal cells and 
curious multicellular star-shaped and jointed hairs, or their scars. 

2. Hypoderm. Several layers of small stone cells underlie the epicarp. 

3. The Mesocarp consists of rather thick-walled parenchyma, oil 
cells and numerous branching secretion tubes with brown contents. 

4. The Endocarp is of soft tissues. 

Arillus (Mace) (Figs. 451 and 452). The seed-mantle is a formation 
intermediate between a true arillus (aril) and an arillodium (arillode). 
Near the base, where it is cup-shaped, it divides into flattened branching 






•\J?^^ 




Fig. 451. Mace {Myristica jra grans). Cross section of outer layers, ep epidermis; p 
parenchyma with o oil cells. Xi6o. (Moeller.) 

arms which form an irregular network clasping the seed. As found in 
the market, mace is buff or brown, translucent, brittle, and agreeably 
aromatic, owing to the essential oil present in amounts varying from 
6-15 per cent. Because of the large amount of fat (20-25 P^^ cent), 
sections should be extracted with ether for the microscopic study of the 
other elements. 

I. Epidermis (ep). The cells are longitudinally extended, some- 
times reaching a length of nearly i mm., and vary from 20-40 /« in width. 



534 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



At the ends they are either sharply pointed or truncated. From cross- 
sections it appears that the cuticularized outer walls are greatly thickened 
(6-8 jx), and that the other walls are moderately thick and swell con- 
siderably in water. Chlorzinc iodine stains the walls blue, the cuticle 
yellow. These cells are almost always wider than thick, thus differing 




Fig. 452. Mace. Surface view of ep outer epidermis and p parenchyma. X 160. 

(MOELLER.) 

from the corresponding cells of Bombay mace, which in cross-section 
are radially elongated. 

2. A Hypoderm of collenchyma cells is found in some parts, par- 
ticularly near the base. 

3. Ground Tissue (p) of thin- walled, isodiametric cells 25-50 /<, large 
oil cells up to 80 /i, and libro-vascular bundles, constitutes the bulk of 
the material. In sections previously extracted with ether, the cells of 
the ground tissue are seen to contain numerous curious, 'irregular, carbo- 
hydrate bodies with rounded excrescences, ranging in length up to 12 fjt, 
which become red or red-brown on addition of iodine. These bodies, 
to which Tschirch has given the name amylodextrin starch, consist of 
a substance intermediate between starch and dextrine, convertible, like 
starch, into a soluble form by malt extract, and into dextrose by heating 
with acid. By the diastase method mace yields 20-30 per cent of so- 
called "starch," or, strictly speaking, amylodoxtrin starch. The oil 
cells contain a light yellow mixture of essential oil, resin, and fat. Addi 



TRUE NUTMEG AND MACE. 



535 



tion of alkali does not produce a marked coloration — never a blood-red 
color, as in the case of Bombay mace. 

Spermoderm (Fig. 453), During drying the hard, chocolate-brown 
shell, consisting of the spermoderm with a portion of the outer or primary 
perisperm, separates from the nutmeg. Cross sections may be cut dry 

St 




Fig. 453. Nutmeg. Shell in cross section. 5 spermoderm consists of ep epidermis with 
st starch grains, p parenchyma with g bundle, pal^ outer palisade layer, and paf inner 
palisade layer with kr crystals; N perisperm with qfs fiber layer. (Hallstrom.) 

and cleared with chloral, potash, or, best of all, Javelle water. Tan- 
gential sections should also be cut of both the outer and inner layers. 

I. Epidermis {ep). Tangential sections show clearly the sharply 
polygonal epidermal cells 20-40 // in diameter with double walls 3 n 
thick; also robustly developed stomata. Brownish, amorphous cell- 
contents, and often starch grains are the visible contents. 



536 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



2. Parenchyma (p). The cells arc thin-walled and contain clear, 
port-wine colored masses readily separating from the cells, also occasional 
crystals of oxalate of lime. Fibro-vascular bundles of the raphe and 
its branches ramify through this layer. 

3. Outer Palisade Layer (pal^). These cells are narrow, thin-walled, 
and about 150 /< high. 

4. Inner Palisade Layer (pal^). By far the larger part of the spermo- 
derm consists of the sclerenchymatized, enormously elongated cells of 
this layer, which vary in height up to i mm. and in breadth up to 20 pt. 
The radial walls are remarkably straight, but the narrow lumen is irregu- 
lar in outline, owing to the spiral thickening of the walls. A large crystal 
of calcium oxalate is often present in either end of the cell or in the 
central portion. As seen in cross-section, the cells of both pahsade 
layers are wavy in outline, owing to the irregularities of the surface of 
the seed, formed by the pressure of the mace during growth. 

Primary Perisperm (Fig. 453, qjs). i. Fiber Layer. Tschirch and 
Oesterle have shown that the fibers of this layer are developed from the outer 

layer of the nucellus, and there- 
fore belong with the perisperm. 
.—.g Seen in tangential section of 
the inner surface of the shell, 
/ they form an interrupted layer 





am 

Fig. 454, Nutmeg. Cross section of kernel. 5 Fig. 455. Nutmeg. Tissues of 

primary perisperm; F secondary perisperm of perisperm from surface of kernel 

veins; ' E endosperm with am starch grains, al with brown masses and crystals, 

aleurone grains and / pigment cells. X i6o. Xi6o. (Moeller.) 

(MOELLER.) 

reminding us in their arrangement of the tube-cells of the cereals. The 
individual fibers are about 15 /x broad, but vary greatly in length and 
have irregular outlines. 



TRUE NUTMEG AND MACE. 537 

2. Inner Layers (Fig. 454, s; Fig. 455). A portion of this tissue clings 
to the inner surface of the shell; the remainder forms the outer coat of 
the nutmeg. In tangential section the cells are rounded, 12-30 /j. in 
diameter, with small intercellular spaces. Dark contents, also crystals, 
usually prismatic, less often tabular, which, according to Tschirch and 
Oesterle, have the reactions of bitartrate of potash, are present in the 
cells. The cell-walls are sclerenchymatized. 

The Secondary Perispermm (Fig. 454, F) forms not only the inner 
portion of the enveloping layers of nutmegs, but also the dark fatty folds 
penetrating into the heart of the kernel. The cells are polygonal, for 
the most part smaher than in the primary perisperm, and contain more 
abundant brown contents. The cell-walls are of cellulose. Large 
secretion cells occur in the folds, in some parts in such numbers as to 
form nearly the whole tissue. 

Endosperm (Fig. 454, E). The light-colored portion of the kernel 
constitutes the endosperm, a parenchymatous tissue consisting of starch 
cells and occasional pigment cells. The starch grains range up to 20 /x 
in diameter and occur singly, in twins, triplets, and in larger aggre- 
gates. Except for the surfaces of contact, they are rounded. Each 
has a distinct hilum and often radiating clefts. In addition to the starch 
grains, each cell contains an aleurone grain with a large crystalloid. The 
pigment cells contain starch grains embedded in a brown medium. These 
cells are lacking in the central portion of the endosperm (the "conduct- 
ing tissue" of Tschirch and Oesterle) into which the arms of the cotyle- 
dons penetrate during germination. 

The Embryo is located in the basal portion of the seed and has branch- 
ing cotyledons for absorbing the reserve material in the endosperm. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Whole Nutmegs. By far the larger part of the nutmegs of commerce 
reach the consumer whole, either limed, that is with a loose coat of lime 
adhering, or unlimed, the so-called brown or Penang nutmegs. It is 
customary in the trade to separate each consignment according to size, 
designating the different grades by the number required to weigh a pound. 

It is a well-known tradition that in Colonial times, when spices 
were expensive luxuries, Connecticut Yankees were wont to manufacture 
imitation nutmegs from basswood. Whether or not this story is based 
on facts is uncertain, but a fraud of this kind is no more remarkable than 



538 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 

molded nutmegs, molded coffee beans, and many other forms of sophis- 
tication practiced at the present time. The name "Nutmeg State," 
at first jokingly applied to the State of Connecticut, is now fixed in the 
language, and will doubtless persist through all time. It is needless to 
say that imitation nutmegs of all kinds, including the molded kernels 
described by Vanderplanken, Ranwez and others, can be quickly identi- 
fied by the appearance and odor on cutting open the kernel. 

Ground Nutmegs appear only in small amount on the market. It 
is no easy task to reduce a sound nutmeg to a powder because of the 
high percentage of oily matter; furthermore, the whole nutmeg keeps 
its flavor better and is readily grated as needed. Immature, worm-eaten 
and other inferior nutmegs are generally used for grinding; in fact, they 
are known in the trade as " grinding nutmegs." Certain insects devour 
the starchy endosperm, but avoid the resinous perisperm. We have 
seen kernels which had been visited by insects that lacked almost entirely 
the endosperm and were readily crushed between the fingers. Chemical 
analysis and microscopic examination showed an almost complete absence 
of starch, but an excess of resinous matter. 

The elements of ground nutmegs especially worthy of notice are the 
rounded starch grains (Fig. 454, am) with distinct hilum, often in twins, 
triplets, and larger aggregates; the oil cells, pale yellow even after 
treatment with caustic alkali; the primary perisperm with crystals; 
and the brown secondary perisperm. 

The adulterants include every imaginable cheap material which is, 
or may be made, brown in color. The materials which have been detected 
include nutmeg shells (spermoderm), cocoanut shells and other nutshells, 
cocoa shells, linseed meal, cereal matter, etc. 

Whole Mace. The dried arillus, like the nutmeg, is often used whole 
in the household. The characters of importance in diagnosis are the 
longitudinally elongated epidermal cells (Fig. 452, ep), cross-sections 
of which (Fig. 451, ep) are tangentially elongated; the amylodextrin 
starch grains (seen after extraction of the fat); and the light yellow oil 
cells, which do not become orange with alkali. As the blades are more 
or less broken, it is an easy matter to adulterate with mace from inferior 
species. 

Bombay mace (Fig. 457) has narrower blades, forming a dense 
tangle at the end of the arillus. If chewed, it sticks to the teeth, colors the 
saliva orange, and does not have a spicy flavor. Cross-sections show 
that the epidermal cells (Fig. 458, ep) are radially elongated. Treat- 



TRUE NUTMEG AND MACE. 539 

ment with alkali dissolves the dull-yellow contents of the numerous oil 
cells (/) to a blood-red hquid. The high percentage of non-volatile 
ether extract, as well as the deportment of the alcoholic extract toward 
reagents, also aids in diagnosis. 

Macassar or Papua mace is identified by the broad, dark-brown 
blades, the peculiar wintergreen odor, and the high percentage of fat. 
Unfortunately it cannot be distinguished with certainty from true mace 
by its microscopic structure. 

Ground Mace is a buff or brovm greasy powder with an aroma resem- 
bling that of nutmegs, but more delicate. The noticeable microscopic 
characters are the amylodextrin starch grains becoming red with iodine, 
the elongated epidermal cells, and the oil cells. In detecting Bombay 
mace, the large numbers of oil-cells and the color of their contents before 
and after adding alkali are of chief importance, coupled, of course, with 
quahtative chemical tests and determinations of ether extract. Chemical 
analysis must be relied on to detect Macassar mace. Starchy matter, 
nutshells, and other foreign materials used as adulterants may usually 
be detected by the microscope. 

Nutmeg Shells have no real value but serve as an adulterant. The 
powder is identified by the enormously elongated palisade cells (Fig. 453, 
pal~), and the detached fibers of the outer layer of the perisperm. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Hanausek, T. F. (10, 16, 48); 
Mace (26); Meyer, A. (27); Moeller (29, 30, 32); Planchon et Collin (34); Schimper 
(37); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (43, 45). 
Baillon: Sui I'origine du maces de la muscade et des arilles en generale. Comptes 

rendus de I'academie, 78, 779. Adansonia, 1876, 11, 329. 
Busse: Ueber Gewiirze. Muskatniisse. Arb. Kaiserl. Ges.-Amte. 1895, 11, 390, 628. 
Busse: Notez betreffend den Nachweis von Bombay Macis in Macispulver. Ztschr. 

Unters. Nahr.-Genussm. 1904, 7, 590. 
Hallstrom : Anatomische Studien iiber die Samen der Myristicaceen und ihre Arillen. 

Arch. Pharm. 1895, 233, 441. 
H.A.NAUSEK, T. F.: Verfalschte Macis. Ztschr. Nahr. -Unters. Hyg. 1890, 4, 77. 
Moeller: Ueber Muskatniisse. Pharm. Centralh. 1880, 453. 
MoRPURGO: Delia Spezie. Trieste, 1904. 

Pfeiffer: Die Arillargebilde der Pflanzensamen. Inaug.-Diss. Eeriin, 1891. 
Ranvez: Verfalschung des Muskatpulvers durch die Muskatschalen. Ann. Pharm. 

1900, 6, 139. 
Tschirch: Ucuhuba, die Samen von Myristica surinamensis. Arch. Pharm. 1887, 

66, 619. 



540 



SPICES y4ND CONDIMENTS. 



Tschirch: Inhaltsstoffe der Zellen des Samens und des Arillus von Myristica jragrans 
Houttuyn. Tageblatt der 58 Versammlung deutscher Naturforscher u. Aertze 
in Strassburg, 1888. 

Voigt: Ueber den Bau und die Entwickelung des Samens und Samenmantels von 
Myristica jragrans. Inaug.-Diss. Gottingen, 1885, 365. 

Waage: Banda- und Bombay -Macis. Pharm. Centralh. 1892, 33, 372. 




Fig. 456. Macassar 
Nutmeg {Myristica 
argentea). Natural 
size. (Warburg.) 



MACASSAR NUTMEQ AND MACE. 

Myristica argentea Warb. yields Macassar or Papua nutmeg and 
mace, products ranking next to true nutmeg and mace in importance. 

The nutmegs (Fig. 456), often known as long 
nutmegs, are 25-40 mm. long and 15-25 mm. broad, 
but by microscopical or chemical methods are not 
distinguishable from true nutmegs. The shell, as 
emphasized by Tschirch and Oesterle, lacks the 
fiber layer, a characteristic of no value in the dia- 
gnosis of the commercial product, as that is free 
from the shell. 

Macassar Mace is darker colored than true 
mace and has broader blades. In its microscopic 
structure and chemical reactions it is much the 
same as true mace; in percentage composition, 
more like Bombay mace. It contains over 50 per 
cent of non-volatile ether extract, but less than 10 per cent of '' starch." 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Moeller (32); Vogl (45). 
Also see Bibliography of nutmeg and mace p. 539. 
Waage: Papua-Macis. Pharm. Centralh. 1893. N. F. 14, 131. 

BOMBAY MACE. 

The chief adulterant of true mace is the arillus of Myristica Mala- 
harica Lam., knov^n as Bombay mace. Although this product is obtained 
from a tree belonging to the same genus as true mace, it is nearly taste- 
less and has absolutely no value as a spice. The elongated nutmeg 
of this species does not come into Europe or America. 

Bombay mace has much narrower and more numerous blades than 
the true mace. These at the apex are veriform, forming a tangled, conical 
mass (Fig. 457). The color is usually a deep red-brown, although some- 
times it is yellow. 



BOMBAY MACE. 



541 



HISTOLOGY. 

Viewed in cross-setions (Fig. 458), the radial diameter of the epi- 
dermal cells {ep) is greater than the tangential, whereas in true mace 
the reverse is the case. So far as the cell-structure is concerned, this 
distinction is the most important, though it is not of use except in the 
examination of wliole mace, or at least broken mace, having fragments 
large enough for cutting sections. Of greater value are the reactions 
of the material contained in the oil cells (/). Ex- 
amined in water, these cells are not only more nu- 
merous than in true mace, but the contents are of an 





Fig. 45 7. Bombay Mace 
{Myristica M alaba- 
rica). Natural size. 
(Warburg.) 



Fig. 458. Bombay Mace. Cross section of outer 
layers. ep epidermis; p parenchyma; / pigment 
cells; g bundle. (T. F. Hanausek.) 



orange-red color. On treatment with alkali the color dissolves to a 
blood-red liquid, whereas in the case of true mace the color is not 
greatly changed. 

Chemical Examination. 

Chemical analysis shows that Bombay mace contains nearly 60 per 
cent of non-volatile ether extract, or over twice as much as true mace, 
but only 15 per cent of "starch." 

Several qualitative methods of detection have been described, of 
which BuSse found Waage's test and the capillary test the most reliable. 
The tests employing lead acetate and chrom alum are stated by the same 
author to be entirely unreliable, and those employing basic lead acetate 
(Hefelmann's test), iron alum and iron acetate were unsatisfactory. 
Waage's test consists in adding potassium chromate to the alcoholic 



542 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 

extract (one part of mace to ten parts of alcohol). In the case of Bom- 
bay mace the solution becomes more or less blood-red and the precipitate, 
at first yellow, becomes red on standing. If only true mace is present 
both the solution and precipitate are yellow and do not greatly change 
on standing. 

In making the capillary test strips of filter-paper 15 mm. broad are 
soaked in the alcoholic extract for 30 minutes, dried, dipped in boiling 
saturated baryta water, and spread on clean paper to dry. Bombay 
mace gives a brick-red color, but true mace and Macassar mace, a brown- 
ish yellow, faintly red in the lower part of the strip. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Moeller (30, 32); Tschirch u. Oesterle 
(40); Vogl (45). 

Also see Bibliography of Nutmeg and Mace, p. 539. 
Tschirch: Bombay-Macis. Pharm. Ztg. 1881, 556. 



CARDAMOMS {Zingiber acecE). 

The various plants yielding the cardamoms of commerce are all peren- 
nial, rush-like herbs, natives of southeastern Asia. 

Two varieties of this spice are exported; the small or ]\Ialabar 
cardamom, and the less important long or Ceylon variety. Although 
the plants producing these fruits were formerly regarded as separate 
species, both are now classed as Elettaria Cardamomum White et Maton. 
Rarely other varieties reach the markets of Europe or America, such 
as Siam or round cardamom (Amomum Cardamomum L.), wild or bas- 
tard cardamom (A. xanthioides Wall), Bengal cardamom (A. subulatum 
Roxb.), and Java cardamom (A. maximum Roxb.). 

The fruit is a three-celled capsule, often ending in a short beak, 
the remains of the perianth. Each cell contains two rows of closely- 
crowded seeds, each enveloped and cemented to its neighbor by a deli- 
cate transparent membrane, the arillus. The form of the capsule, its 
size and color, as well as the number and structure of the seeds, vary 
greatly. 

MALABAR CARDAMOM. 

Malabar cardamoms are rounded triangular, more or less elongated, 
somewhat over i cm. long. The leathery pericarp is light brown, yellow, 



MALABAR CARDAMOM. 



543 



or nearly colorless, longitudinally striated, and only slightly aromatic. 
Colorless, membranous partitions separate the fruit cavities. The seeds, 
usually 6-8 in number, form a coherent mass, from which, however, the 
individuals, each enveloped by its delicate arillus, are easily separated. 
They are red-brown, 2-3 mm. long, irregularly angular, transversely 
wrinkled, and have a sunken hilum and a raphe in a groove running 
nearly the length of the seed (Fig. 459). A bulky perisperm surrounds 




Fig 459. Malabar Cardamom {Elet- 
taria Cardamomuni). Seed with a 

arillus. X3. (LUERSSEN.) 





I 

Fig. 460. Malabar Cardamom. / longitudinal 
section, X3. // cross section, X8. /> perisperm; 
e endosperm; em embryo. (Luerssen.) 



the endosperm and this in turn the minute embryo (Fig. 460). 
odor is agreeably aromatic, suggesting camphor, the taste biting. 



The 



HISTOLOGY. 

The Pericarp when dry is less than i mm. thick, but swells some- 
what in water. Cross- and tangential-sections are cut either wet or dry; 
surface preparations of the outer and inner layers are obtained by scraping. 




/V / f 



Fig. 461. Malabar Cardamom. Outer layers of shell (pericarp), ep epicarp, p parenchyma 
with h resin cells. Xi6o. (Moeller.) 

1. Epicarp (Fig. 461, ep). The rounded polygonal cells often show 
marked evidence of their formation by the division of mother cells. 

2. Mesocarp (p). A thin-walled, large-celled parenchyma forms the 



544 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



ground tissue, in which are numerous smaller cells containing lemon- 
yellow or red-brown resin lumps (50 p.). The- fibro-vascular bundles 
have thin-walled spiral vessels (60 p.), and 
moderately thickened bast fibers of about the 
same diameter as the vessels. In the inner 
layers the tissue is a spongy parenchyma 
(Fig. 462). 

3. Endocarp (Fig. 462). The cells are 
usually longitudinally extended, but some 
times are irregularly arranged. 



f ^■•1 





J 



Fig. 462. Malabar Cardamom. Inner layers of shell FiG. 463. Malabar Carda- 
(pericarp) showing spongy parenchyma and endocarp. mom. Arillus in surface 
X160. (MoELLER.) view. X160. (:Moeller.) 

Arillus (Fig. 463). The membranous, colorless seed-mantle covers 
the seed loosely and is attached to it at the base. At first glance it appears 
structureless, but on careful observation we see that it is composed of 
several layers of delicate, greatly elongated cells, containing strongly 
refractive drops and here and there crystals, either singly or in rows. 

Spermoderm (Figs. 464 and 465). To cut sections it is necessarj' to 
have the hard seed firmly fixed either between corks or embedded in 
hard paraffine. The first and fifth layers are highly characteristic. 

I. Outer Epidermis (0). This layer, like several already described, 
has longitudinally extended cells, but here they are very striking, because 
of their thicker walls, sharp outline and frequent arrangement side by 
side. The cells are mostly 35 // broad and have either pointed or blun*^ 
ends. 



MALABAR CARDAMOM. 



545 



2. Cross Cells (qu), often with brown contents giving the reactions 
for tannin, are indistinctly seen in cross-section, more readily in surface 
view. 

3. Oil Cells (oil). These are large, thick cells containing the essen- 
tial oil, present in the fruit to the amount of 4 per cent, and also other 
substances. 

4. Parenchyma (p). One or two layers of cells are seen in cross- 




FiG. 464. Malabar Cardamom. Cross section of arillus and seed, ar arillus; spermo- 
derm consists of o outer epidermis, qu cross cells, oil oil cells, p parenchyma and st 
palisade cells; perisperm consists of al aleurone cells and am starch cells. (Moeller.) 

section after swelling with reagents. In surface view they are readily 
found. 

5. Palisade Cells (st). Because of the enormous thickening of the 
walls and their intense brown color, these cells form the most character- 
istic layer of the entire fruit. So greatly are the walls thickened that 
only a tiny cavity, at the outer end of each cell, remains. This cavity 
contains a crystal-like body. The cells are 8-20 /j. broad and about 
25 fi high. Focusing on the outer wall, the cells appear moderately 
thin-w^alled, much thinner than the corresponding cells of Ceylon carda- 
mom; but focusing on the inner wall, no lumen is evident, only a com- 
pact brown mass with the sharply defined outline of the cell. 

Perisperm. The outer layer contains aleurone grains, the remaining 
cells starch grains. The latter are minute, usually 2-3 /-« and seldom 
over 4 n, rounded or polygonal, and, like pepper and buckwheat starch, 
form dense masses conforming in shape to the cell. In the center of 



546 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



each mass is a hollow space containing a large crystal or several small 
cr}'stals of calcium oxalate. After treatment with cold alkali, although 
the starch dissolves, the masses do not disappear, but form at first a 
granular, later a homogeneous mass, indicating the presence of a material 
in which the starch grains are embedded. 

The Endosperm is relatively small and contains in its small, thin- 
walled cells aleurone grains and fat but no starch. 

The Embryo has been carefully studied in various stages of growth 
by Tschirch, who found that it consists of an axially arranged absorptive 



'^pTn-'->--r-iv>-/''yiP^' 



C 






-^J iM 



qu 




--am' 




— e 



— St 



Fig. 465. Malabar Cardamom. Elements of seed in surface view, o outer epidermis; 
9M cross cells; ^parenchyma; 5/ palisade cells; e perisperm; aw starch cells. X160 

(MOELLER.) 

organ, surrounding at its basal end a minute plantlet which shows before 
sprouting little differentiation. The cells are small and contain the 
same materials as the endosperm, namely proteids and fat. 



DIAGNOSIS. 



Malabar or small cardamoms serve as a spice, especially as an ingre- 
dient of curry powder, and also in the making of various aromatic pharma- 
ceutical preparations. For these only the seeds should be employed, 
as the shells contain little or no essential oil. It is, however, difficult to 



MALAB/tR CARDAMOM. CEYLON CARDAMOM. 547 

effect a complete separation, and commercial cardamom seeds invariably 
contain a certain amount of shell fragments. In the case of the ground 
seed, the presence of a large amount of shells indicates willful adultera- 
tion. 

Many fragments found in the ground seed have distinctive characters. 
Of the perisperm elements, the masses of minute starch grains offer an 
excellent means of identification. The characteristic tissues of the sper- 
moderm are the elongated epidermal cells (Fig. 465, 0), often with adhering 
cross cells [qii), and the brown mosaic of palisade cells {st). The epidermal 
cells have the same form as the inner epidermis of the pericarp and the 
cells of the arillus, but have much thicker and more rigid walls. The 
elements of the pericarp worthy of especial notice are the yellow or brown 
resin masses. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674 Berg (3); Greenish (14); Hanausek, T- 
F. (16); Hassall (19); Meyer, A. (10, 27); Moeller (29, 30, 31, 32); Planchon et 
Collin (34); Schimper (37); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (45). 
Busse: Ueber eine neue Kardamomen-Art aus Kamerun. Arb. Kais. Gesundh. 1898, 

H 139- 

HartwiCh und Swanlund: Ueber Kardamomen von Kolombo, das Rhizom von 

Zingiber Mioga und Galanga major. Ber. deutsch. pharm. Ges. 1903, 13, 141. 
MoRPURGO: Delle Spezie. Trieste, 1904 
NiEDERSTADX: Die im Handel vorkommenden Cardamom-Arten. Chem.-Ztg. 1897, 

21, 831. 
Schade: Entwicklungsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen uber die Malabar-Cardamomen 

und vergleichend-anatomische Studien uber die Sanien einiger anderer Amomum- 

und Elettaria Arten. Inaug.-Diss. Bern, 1897. 
SoLTSiEN: Verfalschung von Cardamomenpulver. Pharm. Ztg. 1892, 373. 
Tschirch: Beitrage zur Pharmakobotanik und Pharmakochemie. Schw. Woch. Cham. 

Phatm. 1897, No. 17. 
Tschirch: Ueber Cardamomen. Schw. Woch. Chem. Pharm. 1897, 35, 481. 
Tschirch: Diagnose der Cardamomen. Schw. Woch. Chem. Pharm. 1897, No. 43. 
Waage: Fructus Cardamomi. Ber. pharm. Ges. 3, 162. 

CEYLON CARDAMOM. 

Long or Ceylon cardamoms are the fruit of a variety of Elettaria 
Cardamoniiim Wliite et ]\Iaton, which is still classed by some as a dis- 
tinct species. 

The capsules are much longer than those of the Malabar variety, 
often reaching 4 cm., and the seeds, of which there are about 20 in each 
of the three cells, are twice as large, but are less aromatic. 



548 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



HISTOLOGY. 
Of the several distinctions from Malabar cardamoms, the presence 




Fig. 466. Ceylon Cardamom {Elettaria Cardamomiim), Epicarp with hairs and hair 
scars in surface view. X160. (Moeller.) 




Fig. 467. Ceylon Cardamom {Elettaria Cardamomiim). Tissues of inner pericarp in 
surface view, showing parenchyma, spongy parenchyma and endocarp {cp). X 160, 
(Moeller.) 

of hairs on the epicarp deserves first mention (Fig. 466). It is true 



UMBELLIFEROUS FRUITS. 



549 



that these are seldom found on the commercial product, but the scars 
with radiating cells about them are quite as useful in diagnosis. The 
outer epidermis of the spermoderm 
(Fig. 468, 0) has much thicker walls 
(double walls 6 fx), than in the Malabar 
species, although the cells themselves 
are narrower. Other differences are 
too slight to be of practical use. 



UMBELLIFEROUS FRUITS 

( UinbellifercB). 

The inflorescence of the plants 
belonging to the JJ mhelli]er(E is in 
flattened heads or umbels, a word de- 
rived from the Latin iimbella, mean- 
ing umbrella. The flowers are small 
with two-celled ovaries crowned by gt 
five petals, five stamens, and usually 
five minute calyx teeth. The two 
carpels, or mericarps, are plano-con- 
vex, joined on the inner flattened side ^ig. 468. Ceylon Cardamom. Tissues 
.of spermoderm in surface view, o outer 
known as the commissure. On the epidermis; st palisade cells. X160, 

convex or dorsal side they bear five (^Ioeller.) 
primary ribs and sometimes four secondary ribs. When ripe the 
mericarps readily separate, disclosing the carpophore or prolongation 
of the stem to which the carpels are attached at their upper ends. In 
cross-section the mericarps are either semicircular or kidney-shaped. 
Running longitudinally through the dry pericarp, are brown, essential 
oil ducts or vitta, which are evident to the naked eye both in cross-sec- 
tion and, after boiling with dilute caustic alkali, in surface view. 

The epicarp is either smooth or hairy, the hairs being unicellular 
(anise) or multicellular (cumin). 

The mesocarp has outer and inner parenchymatous layers, between 
which is a middle zone traversed by the fibro-vascular bundles of the 
ribs, and by the oil ducts, the latter being jointed and encased in a single 
layer of parenchyma. The ground tissue of this middle zone is largely 
parenchymatous, except on the dorsal side of coriander fruit, where it 




55° SPICES /iND CONDIMENTS. 

forms a dense sclerenchyma layer. The cells of the inner layer of the 
mesocarp are either isodiametric or transversely elongated, conspicuous 
or indistinct. 

The endocarp cells are, for the most part, transversely elongated, 
forming a cross-cell layer, although in some species groups of cells extend 
in other directions, giving the layer a parqueted appearance. In breadth 
the cells differ greatly according to the species. 

The anatropous seed consists of a thin spermoderm, usually of one 
distinctly cellular layer and of several obliterated layers, a bulky endo- 
sperm and a minute embryo embedded in the upper end of the endo- 
sperm. Aleurone grains 2-15 [i in diameter, containing crystal rosettes 
of calcium oxalate, or globoids, also fat, are the only visible contents of 
the endosperm. The minute radicle of the embryo is directed upward. 

The fruits contain essential oils, which give them their value as flavor- 
ing materials for food products, or in medicine. 

COriPARATIVE HISTOLOGY OF UflBELLIFEROUS 
FRUITS. 

Pericarp. Epicarp Cells marked with delicate striations. Unicell- 
ular, warty hairs in anise; prickles (emergences) in cumin; papillae 
more or less evident in celery. Epicarp smooth in all the other species. 

Mesocarp. Outer layers parenchymatous in all the species and not 
distinctive. Middle layers of coriander on dorsal side composed of 
sclerenchymatized fibers with bundles but without oil ducts. In all 
the other species the ground tissue is parenchyma, through which pass 
bundles and oil ducts. 

Oil Ducts. One in each groove in fennel, dill, caraway, and cumin; 
one to three in celery; three to six in anise. 

Ribs of each fruit uniform, except in dill, where the lateral ones have 
wings of sclerenchyma cells perpendicular to the bundles. 

Reticulated Cells accompany the bundles of fennel and dill. 

The Inner Mesocarp pronounced in fennel, dill, celery, and coriander; 
inconspicuous in the other species. In coriander, cell-walls thickened, 
those of innermost layer porous; cells of inner layer in celery transversely 
elongated, broader than those of endocarp, more or less parqueted. 

Endocarp cells narrow (mostly less than 7 [x) in fennel, dill, celery, 
and coriander; broader (mostly over 7 /<) in caraway, anise, and cumin. 
Cells parqueted in fennel, dill, and celery. 



UMBELLIFEROUS FRUITS. 551 

Spennoderm. Much the same in all species. Outer layer of isodia- 
metric or transversely elongated cells. Inner layers of obliterated cells. 

Endosperm. Walls thick. Cell-contents fat and aleurone grains 
3-15 fi, containing oxalate crystals or globoids. 

Embryo minute, of no diagnostic value. 

Carpophore and Stem of woody elements. 

Analytical Key to Umbelliferous Fruits. 

I. Ground tissue of mesocarp parenchymatous throughout, or sclerenchymatized near 

the bundles only. Oil ducts on both dorsal and commissural sides, 
(a) Endocarp cells mostly less than 7/i broad, often parqueted. 

* One oil duct in each groove. 

1. Ribs of uniform size Fennel. 

2. Lateral ribs with wings Dill. 

** One to three oil ducts in each groove. 

3. Ribs and bundles small, inner mesocarp of transversely elongated cells. 

Celery. 
(5) Endocarp cells mostly more than 7;/ broad, seldom parqueted. 

* One oil duct in each groove. 

4. Epicarp smooth Caraway. 

5. Epicarp with emergences Cumin. 

** Several oil ducts in each groove. 

6. Epicarp with warty unicellular hairs Anise. 

II. Middle layers of mesocarp on dorsal side strongly sclerenchymatized. Oil ducts 

present only on commissural side. 

7. Inner mesocarp thick-walled and porous. Endocarp cells mostly less than 

7;u broad .' Coriander. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Bartsch: Beitrage zur Entwicklung d. Umbelliferenfruchte. Diss. Breslau, 1882. 
Kayser: Ueber das Verhaltniss der Integumente der Samenanlagen zu den Samendecken 

der reifen Samen. Ber. pharm. Ges. 1891, 1, 157. 
Kayser: Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Entwicklungsgeschichte der Samen mit besonderer 

Beriicksichtigung des histogenetischen Aufbaues der Samenschalen. Pringsheims 

Jahrb. wissenschaft. Bot. 1893, 25, 79. 
DE Lanessan: Observations sur le developpement du fruit des Ombelliferes. Bull, de 

la Soc. Linneenne, 1874, No. 3. 
Lange: Ueber Die Entwicklung der Oelbehalter in den Friichten der Umbellifereii. 

Diss. Konigsberg, 1884. 
Meyer, A.: Ueber die Entstehung der Scheidewande in dem sekretfiihrenden, plasma- 

freien Intercellularraume der Vittae der Umbelliferen. Bot. Ztg. 1889, 341. 
Moeller: Das Pulver der Umbelliferenfruchte. Pharm. Post. 1892, 25, 24. 
V. Mohl: Eine Kurze Bemerkung iiber das Carpophorum der Umbelliferenfrucht. 

Bot. Ztg. 1863, 264. 



552 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



Taufani: Nota preliminare sul frutto e sul seme delle Apiacee. Nuovo giorn. bot. ital. 

1888, 20, 307. 
Taiifani: Morfologia ed istologia del frutto e sul seme delle Apiacee. Nuovo. giorn. 

bot. ital. 1891, 23, 451. 
Uhxitzsch: Riickstande der Fabrikation atherischer Oele. Landw. Vers. -Stat. 1893, 

42. 215. 
ViLLEPOix: Recherches sur les canaux secreteurs du fruit des Ombelliferes. Ann. 

sci. natur. VI Ser. 5, 350. 
VAN Wisselingh: Over de vittae der Umbelliferen. Gew. vergadering der afdeel. 

Natuurk. op. 30. Juni, 1894, 36. 

FENNEL. 



Fennel {Faniculum capillaceum Gilb.) grows wild in various parts 
of Europe and Asia, and is also a common garden plant in both the Old 
and the New World. In Colonial times in America it was a common 
custom among the Puritans to carry to church a sprig of green fennel, 
known as " Meetin' Seed," at which they nibbled during the service. 

Fruits of the cultivated varieties are from 3-10 mm. long, 1-2 mm, 
broad; those from the wild plant somewhat smaller. Roman or sweet 
fennel (F. duke DC), grown in Mediter- 
ranean countries, yields a larger fruit (Fig. 
469), but with a smaller percentage of 
essential oil. 

Fennel fruit is composed of two plano- 
convex carpels united on the fiat com- 



a c 

Fig. 469. Fennel {Foeniculum capiUaceiim). 
a German fennel X3; b Roman fennel XiJ; 
c Macedonian fennel X ij. (Hager.) 




Fig. 



470. Fennel. Cross section of 
fruit. (TscHiRCH.) 



missural side, but separating easily when ripe. The commercial 
product consists partly of entire fruits and partly of detached car- 
pels, the latter being bowed so that the commissure becomes concave. 
On the dorsal side each carpel bears five pronounced ribs. As in other 



FENNEL. 553 

umbelliferous fruits, the dry pericarp incloses a hard seed consisting 
largely of endosperm. The carpophore, or stem of the fruit prolonged 
between the carpels, is divided. The dry fruit contains 2-7 per cent 
of an essential oil, consisting largely of anethol, to which it owes its value 
as a drug and flavoring material. 



HISTOLOGY. 

Cross-sections are cut with a razor or microtome without special 
preparation other than soaking in water. After boiling with dilute alkah, 
the pericarp may be easily separated from the seed, and the spermoderm 
from the endosperm. 

Pericarp (Fig. 470). In each of the five ribs on the dorsal side of 
the carpel is a fibro-vascular bundle, while in the tissues between adjoin- 
ing ribs -is a large resin duct. Two resin ducts run through the tissues 
of the commissure. 

1. The Epicarp Cells (12-25 !^) i^^ surface view are polygonal or 
quadrilateral, arranged often in longitudinal rows. Their walls are 
colorless and sharply defined. Small stomata occur here and there. 

2. Mesocarp (Fig. 472). Several layers of colorless, thin-walled 
isodiametric cells (20-50 p) underlie the epicarp, and two or more layers 
of thicker-walled isodiametric or transversely elongated cells with brown 
walls form the innermost layers {h, c). Between these outer and inner 
layers is an ill-defined zone of ground tissue, through which run the 
oil-ducts and fibro-vascular bundles. The oil-ducts, usually 200 // or 
more broad and about half as thick, are incased by a single layer of polyg- 
onal cells of an intensely brown color {a). Because of this sheath, 
the ducts in surface view form broad brown bands in the lighter-colored 
ground tissue. 

Quite as striking as the ducts, although lacking all color, are the 
bundles, of which there are six in each carpel, a large one in each of the 
five ribs, and a small one. in the middle of the commissure, the large 
bundles being about the same size as the oil ducts. The bast strand 
is not only strongly developed on the outer side of the bundle, but extends 
inward to the xylem, bisecting the phloem. Adjoining each side of the 
bundle and extending into the ground tissue separating the bundle from 
the neighboring oil duct, is a group of reticulated, sclerenchyma cells, 
(Fig. 471), those nearest the bundle being longitudinally elongated, the 
others isodiametric. These reticulated cells are characteristic of fennel. 



554 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



3. The Endocarp (Fig. 472, d) is made up of exceedingly narrow 
cross cells from 4-6 /i broad, those derived from the same mother cell 
being arranged side by side in, groups. As a rule the cells are trans- 
versely elongated, except over the 



bundles where the members of 
different groups extend in different 
directions, giving the coat a par- 
queted appearance peculiar to this 
species. In cross-section the layer 
is about 15 /x thick. 

Spermoderm. This is firmly 



.*-*" 



'f^y'^ 





Fig. 471. Fennel. Porous paren- 
chyma of mesocarp. (Moeller.) 



Fig. 472. Fennel. Elements of the pericarp in 
surface view, a brown cells encasing the oil 
ducts; b, c brown parenchyma of mesocarp; d 
endocarp. (Moeller.) 



attached to the endocarp on one side and the endosperm on the other, 
but can be separated by boiling with dilute alkali. 

1. The Outer Epidermal Cells are often transversely elongated, but 
are readily distinguished from the cross cells of the endocarp by their 
greater breadth (12-25 P-) ^^^ their arrangement side by side in long 
rows, not in small groups. 

2. The Inner Layers over most of the seed form a collapsed, structure- 
less tissue, and it is only about the raphe running through the middle 
of the commissure that the cells are well defined. 

Endosperm. The hard, ivory-like endosperm consists of quadri- 
lateral or polygonal, thick-walled (double walls 3-6 jj), colorless cells 



FENNEL. CARAIVAY. 555 

containing aleurone grains and fat. Examined in glycerine or tur- 
pentine, the aleurone grains are seen to be 2-8 // in diameter, and 
contain one or two globoids or a calcium oxalate rosette, the latter beino- 
evident after mounting in chloral. 

The Embryo is embedded in the upper part of the endosperm with its 
radicle directed upward. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Fennel is used whole and ground, both as a drug and in cookery. 
The residue from the manufacture of the essential oil is fed to cattle. 

Aside from the oil ducts three elements are of value in diagnosis: 
(i) the reticulated cells (Fig. 471) of the mesocarp; (2) the parenchyma 
cells of the inner mesocarp, with brown walls (Fig. 472, h, c); (3) the par- 
queted groups of exceedingly narrow (4-6 p) endocarp cells {d). The 
epidermis lacks all hairs. Starch-free endosperm, with characters like 
those of other members of the family, forms the bulk of the fruit. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674; Berg (3); Bohmer(23); Collin (8); Han- 
ausek, T. F. (16); Harz (18); Mace (26); Meyer, A. (27); Moeller (31, 32); Planchon 
et Collin (34); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (45). 
JucKENACK u. Sendtner: Zur Untersuchung und Charakteristik der Fenchelsamen. 

Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm. 1899, 2, 69, 329. 
Moeller: Das Pulver der Umbelliferenfriichte. Pharm. Post. 1892, 25, 24. 
Neumann-Wender: Ueber gefarbten Fenchel. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1897, 

11, 369. 
Neumann-Wender: Zur Verfalschung von Fenchelsamen. Oesterr. Chem.-Ztg. 

1899, 2, 588. 
Uhlitzsch: Riickstande der Fabrikation atherischer Oele. Landw. Vers. -Stat. 1893, 

42, 215. 
Umney: Japan Fennel. The Chem. and Drugg. 1896, 49, 850. 
Umney: The Commercial Varieties of Fennel. Pharm. Jour. 1897, 58, 225. 

CARAWAY. 

The so-called caraway seed, used in bread and cakes as well as in 
medicine, is the fruit of Carum Carvi L., a native of Europe, where it 
is also extensively cultivated. It is also grown to a limited extent in 
American gardens. 

The fruit reminds one of fennel in appearance, but is shorter and 
more slender, being seldom over 5 mm. long and 1.5 mm. broad. The 
light-colored ribs contrast sharply with the nearly black channels between 



556 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



them. Cross sections of the five-ribbed carpels are nearly equilateral 
pentagons, the inner face, or commissure, being 
scarcely broader than each of the four exposed 
faces (Fig. 473). 

HISTOLOGY. 




Fig. 473. Caraway {Car urn 
Carvi). Cross section of 
fruits, enlarged. (Moel- 

LER.) 



The Pericarp (Fig. 474) is not so robustly 
developed as that of fennel. 

I. Epicarp. The cells on the faces are 
polygonal, or more often quadrilateral, 15-45 /x in diameter, arranged 
in longitudinal rows. Over the ribs they are elongated. Stomata are 
present. 

2. The Mesocarp is not so thick as in fennel and the bundles are nar- 
rower, seldom exceeding 125 [x in diameter, but on the other hand the 



oil ; 




Fig. 474. Caraway. F pericarp and E endosperm in cross section; / fibers of bundles; 
oil oil ducts covered above with sclerenchyma. (Moeller.) 

oil ducts {oil) are considerably larger, the tangential diameter reaching 

The Inner Mesocarp, as seen in cross section, is of compressed cells 
which are scarcely evident at all in surface view. After boiling in dilute 
alkali, we are able to separate out from the bundles narrow spiral vessels^ 
somewhat broader bast fibers, and also, at the edges of the bundle near 
the apex of the fruit, groups of isodiametric, sclerenchyma cells. Reticu- 
lated cells such as occur near the bundles of fennel are entirely want- 



CARAIVAY. 557 

ing. Over the broad oil ducts is an envelope of brown polygonal paren- 
chyma cells. 

3. Endocarp. The cells are transversely elongated, forming a cross- 
cell layer. Their breadth (15-25 p.) is much greater than in fennel. 
Although commonly placed side by side in rows, they are not parqueted. 

Spermoderm. The structure is obscure owing, in cross section, to 
the compressed condition of the elements, and in surface view, to the 
hyaline nature of the walls. Preparations obtained by boiling with dilute 
alkali, removing the pericarp, and scraping the seed, show, with careful 
illumination, that the thin-walled cells of the outer layer are mostly 
transversely elongated. Cell-structure in the inner layers is scarcely 
recognizable. 

The Endosperm and Embryo agree in structure with the correspond- 
ing parts of fennel. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

This fruit, whole or ground, is an ingredient of foods and medicines; 
the residue from the manufacture of caraway oil is a cattle food and 
adulterant. 

As the structure resembles more nearly fennel than any of the other 
common umbelliferous fruits, it is important to note the points of differ- 
ence between these two. Reticulated cells adjoining the bundles, brown 
polygonal parenchyma cells in the inner mesocarp, both characteristic 
tissues of fennel, are lacking in caraway ; on the other hand, isodia- 
metric sclerenchyma cells, such as occur near the apex of caraway, are 
lacking in fennel. The bundles are narrower, the oil cells larger in cara- 
way. A most important distinction lies in the size and arrangement 
of the elongated endocarp cells. In caraway they are much broader 
than in fennel and are transversely arranged throughout — never par- 
queted. The epicarp (without hairs), spermoderm, endosperm, and 
embryo are practically the same in both fruits. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Collin (8); Hanausek, T. F. 
(16); Harz (18); Mace (23); Moeller (31, 32); Planchon et Collin (34); Villiers et 
Collin (42); Vogl (45). 

Matthews: The Vittae of Caraway Fruits. Pharm. Jour. 1898, 60, 259. 
Moeller: Das Pulver der Umbelliferenfrtichte. Pharm. Post. 1892, 25, 24. 
Uhlitzsch: Riickstande der Fabrikation atherischer Oele. Landw. Vers. -Stat. 1893, 
42, 215. 



558 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



ANISE. 

The fruit of anise (Pimpinella Anisum L,), the anise "seed" of com- 
merce, is the most delightfully aromatic of the umbelliferous fruits em- 
ployed in medicine and cookery. The plant is a native of Egypt and 
Asia Minor, where it was cultivated in very early times. It is now grown 
in various parts of Europe, particularly in Spain, Italy, France, Germany, 
and southern Russia, also in the Orient and sparingly in America. Spain 
supplies the market with one of the finest grades, Russia with a grade 
largely used for the manufacture of the essential oil, of which the fruit 
contains from 1.5 to 3 per cent. Anise oil is an ingredient of various 
medicinal preparations (paregoric, etc.), cordials, and candies. 

As found on the market the fruit is obovoid, 2-4 mm. long, 1.5-2 
mm. broad, of a dull-brown color (Fig. 475). Slender stems somewhat 
longer than the fruit are attached to many of them. On breaking apart 




Fig. 475. Anise {Pimpinella Anisum). 
I Spanish or Italian; 2 German or 
Russian. (Moeller.) 



Fig. 476. 




Anise. Cross section, enlarged. 
(Moeller.) 



the carpels the inner surface is often found to be sunken in the middle. 
The carpophore is parted. 



HISTOLOGY. 

Each of the carpels in cross section (Fig. 476) reminds one of a gam- 
brel roof, the rib on the middle of the dorsal side corresponding to the 
ridge-pole. 

The Pericarp (Fig. 477) is characterized by the hairy epicarp and 
the numerous oil ducts. 

I. Epicarp. The pecuHar warty hairs (Fig. 478) which characterize 
this layer vary up to 200 n in length, the longer ones being about 15 /t 
broad in the middle. At the apex they are blunt, at the base expanded 
into a polygonal cell similar in shape and size to the other epidermal 
cells. Some of these hairs are divided by cross partitions into two cells. 



ANISE. 



559 



2. Mesocarp (Fig. 479). Running through the ground tissue on the 
convex side of each carpel are 20 to 45 oil ducts ranging in diameter 



St 




S 



Fig. 477. Anise. Outer portion of fruit in cross section, r rib; t hairs; P mesocarp; 
St oil ducts; 5 endosperm. (Vogl.) 

from 10-150 [X. It should be noted that the larger ducts frequently 
branch. Only two ducts are found in that portion of the pericarp cover- 
ing the commissural face of each carpel, but these are of great breadth, 
reaching 300-400 [i. The bundles are small, 30-50 fx in diameter. 
3. Endocarp. Cross cells from 7-20 p. broad form the inner layer 




r:fe 






tr — : 

1 




Fig. 478. Anise. Epicarp with hairs and 
stoma. (MOELLER.) 



Fig. 479. Anise. Surface view of oz7 oil 
ducts and tr cross cells. (Moeller. ) 



of the pericarp, except on the flattened face, where they grade into iso- 
diametric cells often somewhat sclerenchymatized. 

Spermoderm, Endosperm, and Embryo are practically the same as 
in fennel and caraway. 



S6o SPICES y^ND CONDIMENTS. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Highly characteristic are the blunt, warty hairs (Fig. 478) of the epi- 
carp. The large number of oil ducts (Fig. 479, oil), their branching 
tendency and their variable size also the cross cells of the endocarp (tr) 
further characterize the pericarp. The odor of the fruit is sweeter 
and more highly aromatic than that of other members of the family. 

Italian anise has been found by Lochmann to contain the poisonous 
fruits of Conium maculatum L. These have a smooth epicarp, and the 
mesocarp contains no oil ducts. On rubbing in a mortar with potash 
solution a mouse-like odor is noticeable. The micro-tests for Conium 
described by Tschirch and Oesterle may also be applied. Volkart gives 
botanical analyses of Dutch anise containing fruits of Conium, Setaria 
glauca, and S. viridis. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Bohmer (23); Collin (8); 
Hanausek, T. F. (16); Harz (18); Mace (26); Meyer, A. (27); Moeller (31, 32); 
Planchon et Collin (34); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et CoUin (42); Vogl (45). 
Lochmann: A Common and Dangerous Admixture of Conium Fruit with Italian 

Anise. Amer. Drugg. 1887, 16, 81. 
MoDRAKOWSKi: Vergleichende Untersuchung der dem Conium maculatum ahnlichen 

UmbelHferen. Ztschr. allg. osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1903, 41, 1215. 
Moeller: Das Pulver der Umbelliferenfriichte. Pharm. Post. 1892, 25, 24. 
Uhlitzsch: Riickstande der Fabrikation atherischer Oele. Landw. Vers. -Stat. 1893, 

42, 215. 
Volkart: Ueber das Vorkommen von Schierlingsfriichten im Anis. Schw. Woch. 

Chem. Pharm. 1897, 614. 

cuniN. 

Among the spices mentioned in the Old Testament is cumin, the 
fruit of Cuminum Cyminum L., an annual umbelliferous plant indige- 
nous to Egypt and introduced into India, Asia Minor, and southern 
Europe. 

The hairy carpels are 6 mm. or less in length, and have five primary 
and four secondary ribs (Fig. 480). In cross section they are kidney- 
shaped. The carpophore is divided. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Pericarp, i. The Epicarp (Fig. 481) bears on the ribs remarkable 
prickles (emergences) varjnng up to 200 /« in length and from 25-40 p. in 



CUMIN. 



561 



breadth in the middle portion, broadening at the base. Each consists 
of a bundle of elongated cells ending usually in a single rounded cell. 
These prickles are highly characteristic. 
The other epidermal cells have wavy walls, 
and in places are longitudinally elongated. 
Stomata occur in considerable numbers. 

2. Mesocarp. A bundle about 50 /x in 
diameter is present in each of the five 
primary nerves, and a large oil duct, 200 
li or less broad, in each of the four second- 
ary nerves. Still larger oil ducts, two for 
each carpel, are found in the commissure. 

3. Endocarp. The cross cells of this 
layer are 7-18 /< broad. 

Spermoderm. The cells in all but the outer layer are strongly com 




Fig. 480. Cumin (Cuminum 
Cyminiim). a fruit, natural 
size; b dorsal side of fruit, en- 
larged; c commissural side of 
fruit, enlarged; d cross section. 
(Hager.) 




Fig. 481. Cumin. Prickle from fruit. (MoEtLER.) 

pressed. Vogl notes that each cell contains either a single crystal oi- 
a sheaf-like bundle of crystals. 

Endosperm. The aleurone grains are 15 /i or less in diameter, and 



562 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 

contain oxalate rosettes or globoids. After dissolving the proteid mat- 
ter in dilute alkali, the crystals are easily seen. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The prickles (Fig. 481) of the epicarp furnish the chief means of 
identification. The cross cells are intermediate in size between those 
of fennel and caraway. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Hanausek, T. F. (16); Harz 
(18); Hassall (19); Mace (26); Moeller (32); Planchon et Collin (34); Villiers et Collin 

(42);Vogl(45). 

Uhlitzsch: Ruckstande der Fabrikation atherischer Oele. Landw. Vers.-Stat. 1893 
42, 215. 

CORIANDER. 

The coriander fruit {Coriandrum sativum L.) is a native of Italy and 
other countries bordering on the Mediterranean. It is cultivated in 

many regions for its fruit, the coriander seed 
of commerce, which bears little resemblance 
either in external appearance, histology, or 
flavor to the other umbelliferous fruits used 
as foods. 

''L,f V.«»5r"trf£t': The fruit (Fig. 482) is globular .-4 mm. 
and cross section enlarged, jn diameter, and is crowned with the remains 

of the fine calyx teeth and the small pyramidal 
base of the style. It consists of two closely united carpels, each with five 
main ribs and between them four secondary ribs, but only two oil ducts, 
both on the commissural side. As the carpels are strongly concave on the 
commissural side, the fruit is hollow and readily crushes between the 
teeth. The flavor of coriander is mild and agreeable. Coriandrol is 
the chief constituent of the essential oil. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Owing to the sclerenchyma layer of the mesocarp peculiar to this 
species, coriander is easily identified. 

Pericarp (Fig. 483). For surface preparations it is recommended to 
boil in I J per cent alkali, remove the pericarp and scrape both the outer 
and inner surface. 




CORIANDER. 



563 



1. Epicarp. The sharply polygonal cells, 15-30 /i, contain crystals 
and crystal clusters of calcium, oxalate also remains of chlorophyl grains. 

2. The H y podermal Cells, of which there are two or three layers, 
arc somewhat larger than those of the epicarp, and in cross-section are 
tangentially elongated. 

3. Parenchyma. Between the ribs this layer consists of large, iso- 
diametric, thin-walled cells, and in the ribs, of longitudinally elongated. 





Fig 483. Coriander. Cross sec- 
tion through portion of the two 
fruits showing where they are 
grown together. (Bkrg.) 



Fig. 484. Coriander. Sclerenchyma and paren- 
chyma of mesocarp in surface view. (MoEL- 

LER.) 



moderately thick-walled cells. Between this and the next layer are 
the insignificant fibro-vascular bundles. 

4. Fiber Layer (Fig. 484). Tangentially extended fibers, crossing 
one another in different directions, form a continuous coat on the dorsal 
side of each carpel, but are entirely lacking on the commissure; on the 
other hand, two oil ducts 300-400 /< in diameter occur on the commissural 
side, but none are present on the dorsal side. The fiber coat is from 
5-10 fibers thick (50-175 n), being thickest in the ribs. The fibers have 
strongly thickened, sclerenchymatized, porous walls. A similar fiber 
layer occurs in the endocarp of the apple and coffee bean. 

5. Inner Mesocarp. Isodiametric or somewhat elongated rounded 
parenchyma cells 25-60 ;< in diameter make up two or more layers. 
They have yellow walls 4-8 /< thick, which, in the innermost layer, are 
distinctly porous. 

6. Endocarp. Narrow cross cells 3-10 /« broad, often parqueted, 
remind one of the endocarp of fennel. 



564 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 

Spermoderm. After removal of the pericarp as above described, 
the spermoderm may be separated from the seed by scraping. The 
cells in the outer layer are polygonal, 15-25 p. in diameter, and contain 
a brown-green substance. 

Endosperm. This, in cross-section, is narrow kidney-shaped. It 
contains aleurone grains like those found in other members of the family. 

The Embryo presents no distinctive features. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Whole coriander fruits are much used in confectionery, and also to 
some extent in mixtures of whole spices; the ground fruits enter into 
the composition of various spice mixtures and drugs. 

From all other fruits of the family they are distinguished by the dense 
fiber layer (Fig. 484) and the presence of oil ducts only on the com- 
missural side. The endocarp is much like that of fennel, dill, and celer)-, 
but seen in combination with the thick and porous-walled inner mesocarp 
cells is useful in identification. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Hanausek, T. F. (16); Harz 
(18); Mace (26); Meyer, A. (27); Moeller(32); Planchon et Collin (34); Villiers et 
Collin (42); Vogl (45)- 

Perrot: Sur I'anatomie du fruit de coriandre. Bui. Sci. Pharm. 1901, 3, 385. 
Uhlitzsch: Riickstiinde der Fabrikation atherischer Oele. Landw. Vers.-Stat. 1893, 
42, 215. 

DILL. 

Like most of the umbelliferous plants yielding fruits used for culinary 
purposes, dill {Anethum graveolens L.) is a native of parts of Europe, 
Asia, and Africa bordering on the Mediterranean. 

The carpels (Fig. 485) are plano-convex, 3-5 mm. long, and 2-3 mm. 
broad. Of the five ribs, the two on the edges form wings about 0.5 mm. 
broad, while the remaining three on the convex surface are not pro- 
nounced. The carpophore is divided nearly to the base. 

HISTOLOGY. 

This fruit is distinguished from fennel by the wings on the edges. 
While the bundles in the other ribs arc not usually over 100 jn in diameter, 
those in the wings reach 300 /«. The thin, chaffy edges of the wings, 
about 300 /i broad, consist of porous, sclcrcnchyma cells, in the outer layers 




DILL. CELER Y SEED. 565 

isodiamctric, in the inner layers greatly elongated (often 150 /«) and 
arranged perpendicular to the bundle. 

On the side of the bundle nearest the seed are reticulated elements, 
which are either isodiamctric or axially elongated. 

Epicarp, Endocarp, Spermoderm, and Embryo are 
similar in structure to the corresponding parts of 
fennel. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Fig. 485. Dill {Ane- 
Dill fruits are employed both in foods and mcdi- ''«""» graveoiens). 

cincs. They are distinguished from fennel by the 
broad wings, each with a large bundle (300 ;<), and adjoining the bundle, 
porous, sclerenchyma elements. On the outer side these sclcrenchyma 
cells are elongated perpendicularly to the bundle, and are distinctly but 
finely porous, whereas on the inner side of the bundle they are longi- 
tudinally elongated and reticulated. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674 Hanausek, T. F. (16); Harz (18). 
Uhlitzsch: Riickstande der Fabrikation atherischer Oele. Landw. Vers. -Stat. 1893, 

42, 215. 
Umney: Some Commercial Variedes of Dill Fruits. Pharm. Jour. 1898, Gl, 176. 

CELERY SEED. 

Celery (A plum graveoiens L.) is grown throughout the temperate 
regions of Europe and America for its succulent leaf-stalks or fleshy 
roots, and in France for its spicy fruits. 

These are minute, 0.8-1.5 mm. long, and are shaped much lilce anise 
seed. The carpophore is entire nearly to the apex. Cross-sections of 
the carpels are nearly regular pentagons. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Pericarp. After boiling or soaking for some hours in i| per cent 
alkali the pericarp separates from the seed. 

1. The Epicarp Cells in surface view are sinuous in outline, the outer 
walls being delicately striated, and in parts extended beyond the surface 
in the form of warts. 

2. Mesocarp. One, two, or three oil ducts occur in each groove 
on the dorsal side, while two are present on the commissural side. They 



566 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 

are surrounded by a layer of polygonal cells. The bundles are small, 
and at the apex of the seed are accompanied by groups of sclerenchyma 
cells. 

The inner layers of the mesocarp consist of elongated cells broader 
than those of the endocarp (10-16 11), but otherwise very much like them. 
They are for the most part transversely arranged, but groups of cells 
extended in other directions are not uncommon. 

3. Endocarp. Narrow cross cells (4-10 p), such as are found in 
fennel and dill, make up this layer. Although mostly transversely ex- 
tended, a parqueted arrangement is not uncommon. 

Spermoderm, Endosperm, and Embryo conform in structure to the 
usual type of umbelliferous seed. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Celery seed has a limited use for seasoning soups, gravies, etc., and 
celery salt, a mixture of the ground seeds with common salt, is a table 
condiment. Before examination the latter should be freed from the 
salt by stirring with water, allowing the insoluble matter to settle. 

Mustard seed and other cheaper spices are common admixtures. 

Although none of the elements are characteristic, the presence of 
two cross-cell layers, one of cells 10-16 [x broad belonging to the inner 
mesocarp, the other of narrow endocarp cells such as are found in fennel, 
is of service in diagnosis. The epicarp is delicately striated and some- 
times warty, but is diflEicult to find. 



MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS AND SEEDS. 

Mustards are described with the oil seeds (pp. 176-185), tonka 
bean with the legumes (p. 273). The following are unclassified: 

STAR-ANISE. 

Aside from its anise-like aroma, star-anise bears no resemblance to 
umbelliferous fruits. It is the fruit of a tree {lUicium verum Hook, fil., 
order Magnoliacea;), indigenous to southern China and cultivated in 
Japan, the Philippines and other parts of the Orient. After blooming 
the 6-8 (rarely 9-12) independent upright carpels assume horizontal 
positions, forming a flat expanded rosette (Fig. 486, i) radiating from 



STAR- ANISE. 



567 



a central column and borne on a slender stem. The ripe carpels, 12-20 
mm. long and 6-10 mm. high, are laterally somewhat flattened, pointed 
on the free end, and dehiscent on the upper (before expansion, the inner) 
side, thus making them boat-shaped. The outer surface of the pericarp 
is dark brown and roughened; the surface of dehiscence and the lining 
of the cavity are smooth and lustrous. Still more lustrous are the light- 
brown, obovoid, anatropous seeds, 5-8 mm. long, each containing a 
bulky endosperm and a minute embryo. Star-anise owes its agreeable 




Fig. 486. ?)i&r-A.m&e {Illiciumverum). i aggre- 
gate fruit; 3 single fruit; 4 (left) stem; 6 seed. 
Shikimi {lUicitim religiosum), 2 aggregate 
fruit; 5 single fruit; 4 (right) stem; 7 seed. 
(VOGL.) 



Fig. 487. Star-Anise. Cross section 
of fruit, d dehiscence slit; / fiber 
group; epi epicarp; mes mesocarp; 
end endocarp; Jv fibro-vascular 
bundle, (VoGL.) 



aroma to an essential oil situated in the pericarp, which, like anise oil, 
consists largely of anethol. 



HISTOLOGY. 

The microscopic structure is somewhat complicated, and includes a 
number of beautiful and highly characteristic elements. 

Pericarp (Fig. 487). The hard pericarp should be soaked in water 
before making preparations. Cross sections should be cut of the whole 
pericarp, also longitudinal sections through the dehiscence surface. Prepa- 



568 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



rations obtained by scraping the outer and inner portions of the peri- 
carp, and tangential sections from the surfaces of dehiscence are also 
instructive. 

I. Epicarp (epi). The roughened outer surface of the pericarp is 
covered with an epicarp of large cells (40-100 //) with wavy side walls 
pierced by numerous pores, and greatly thickened outer walls (10-15 //) 
covered with a striated cuticle. Interspersed among these cells are 
large stomata. Highly characteristic are the narrow, more or less Daral- 



— sts 




Fig. 488. Star-Anise. Elements of powder in cross section and surface view, ep epi- 
carp with c cuticle and sp stoma; p parenchyma of mesocarp with oe oil cell; str branched 
stone cell; sts stone cells; st stone cells from beneath dehiscence surface; 5 palisade 
cellsof endocarp; wparenchmyaof spermoderm; e« spermoderm. X120. (Moeller). 

lei, branching and anastomosing striations of the cuticle (Fig. 488, c), 
which in cross-section appear like teeth. The contents of these cells 
is a red-brown material, either in homogeneous masses or globules, 
changing to a green color on addition of ferric chloride. 

2. Mesocarp (mes). This is thickest in the dorsal (under) side of the 
pericarp, diminishing gradually toward the cleft of dehiscence. The 
cells are variable in size, and have thin, brown, waiy walls and brown 



STAR- ANISE. 569 

contents. Here and there are found large, rounded cells, containing 
essential oil, which in the ripe fruit are more or less shrunken, but assume 
their original form on treating tangential sections with dilute alkali. 
The walls of the oil cells arc cuticularized and, as noted by Vogl, become 
intensely red on the addition of alcoholic fuchsin. Scattered through 
the mesocarp and more abundantly through the tissues of the fruit stem, 
are branching stone cells of various fantastic shapes, denominated by 
Tschirch "astrosclereids. " These are best obtained by maceration. 
Through the middle layers of the mesocarp run the bundles, of which 
the narrow spiral vessels, the broad reticulated vessels, and the bast 
fibers of various breadth, are the noticeable elements. The cells in the 
inner layers are smaller than in the outer and, as may be seen in cross- 
section, are collenchymatously thickened. 

Adjoining the endocarp on each of the dehiscence surfaces {d) is a 
dense layer, 500 /i or more thick, of longitudinally arranged scleren- 
chyma fibers. These fibers vary greatly as to the thickness of the walls, 
and the breadth of the cavity. 

3. Endocarp {end). A layer of sclerenchymatized but thin-walled 
palisade cells, reaching 600 /i in height and 60 fx in breadth, lines the 
seed cavity. Their shape in cross-section is sharply rectangular. In 
surface view they are polygonal, but the isolated cells or groups of cells 
obtained from the powder fall on their side, presenting the same appear- 
ance as in cross-section. Their great length and prismatic form is 
very noticeable. These cells pass by degrees into short, strongly thick- 
ened, porous stone cells on the dehiscence surfaces. Toward the edge 
of these surfaces they have thinner walls, elegantly marked with parallel 
reticulations. 

Spermoderm (Fig. 489). Quite as striking as the elements of the 
pericarp are those of the spermoderm. 

1. The Outer Epidermis (ep) may be separated as yellow, brittle, 
glassy fragments from the inner layers which are firmly attached to the 
endosperm. As appears in cross-section, the layer is composed of 
sclerenchyma palisade cells 150-200 ft high and 30-70 /i broad, the 
radial walls of which are very strongly thickened in the outer portion, 
but narrow near the inner wall, forming an inverted funnel-shaped lumen. 
Round and very distinct pores pierce both the radial and tangential 
walls. 

2. Sclerenchymatized Spongy Parenchyma (snb) forms the brown 
subepidermal layer. The cells are large, often longitudinally elongated. 



570 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



flat, and exceedingly irregular in shape (Fig. 488 m). Their porous 
membrane is impregnated with brown coloring matter. 

3. Middle Layers (p). Proceeding inward, the intercellular spaces 
become less numerous and the walls, although still somewhat thickened, 



sub 




Fig. 489. Star-Anise. Cross section of outer portion of seed. Spermoderm consists of 
ep outer epidermis, sub supepidermal layer and p parenchyma; en inner obliterated 
tissue (perisperm?); £ endosperm. (Moeller.) 

lose their sclerenchymatous character and their brown color. Elongated 
elements form the inner layers. 

4. Hyaline Layer (en). By scraping are disclosed still other cells 
forming the colorless inner membrane. They appear as an indistinct 
layer in cross-section and are easily overlooked. Their contents are 
numerous, large, prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. Some of these 
cells may belong to the perisperm. 

Endosperm. Thin-w^alled cells containing fat and protein make up 
the endosperm. At first glance the contents appear as an amorphous, 
colorless mass, but after extracting the fat and treatment with alcoholic 



STAR-^NISE. 571 

iodine a clear differentiation of the aleurone grains is obtained. These 
have roughened surfaces and occur to some extent singly, reaching in 
extreme cases 25 /i; but more often are combined to form compact masses. 
The individual grains contain globoids, less often single crystalloids. 

The Embryo :s too minute to form any considerable portion of the 
product, and possesses no elements worthy of notice. 

The Fruit Colunm and Fruit Stem contain, among other woody 
elements, numerous astrosclereids. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The fruit is seldom found in the kitchen, but is largely employed 
in the manufacture of medicinal preparations, cordials, and perfumes, 
as well as essential oil. 

The histological elements resemble closely those of the poisonous 
fruit of shikimi {Illicium religiosum Siebold), but exhibit some differ- 
ences noted in the subsequent chapter. Distinction from other materials 
is simple, owing to the highly characteristic elements of the pericarp, 
the spermoderm, and the fruit stem. Of especial diagnostic importance 
are the striated cells of the epicarp (Fig. 488, ep), the long, non-porous, 
rather thin-walled prismatic cells of the endocarp {s), the thick-walled, 
porous elements from beneath the dehiscence surface, the epidermal 
stone cells of the spermoderm with funnel-shaped cavities, the scleren- 
chymatized subepidermal spongy parenchyma {m), and the inner crystal- 
bearing layers, and finally the astrosclereids {str) of the mesocarp and 
stem. It is hardly necessary to undertake the somewhat difficult task 
of examining' the aleurone grains except in cases where the presence of 
shikimi is suspected. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Fluckiger (11); Hanausek, T. 
F. (16, 48); Mace (26); Meyer, A. (27); Moeller (29, 30, 31, 32); Planchon et Collin 
(34); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40) ; Villiers et Collin (42) ; Vogl (45). 
Blondel: L'industrie de la Badiane au Tonkin. Jour, pharm. chim. 1889, 20, 567. 
GoDFRiN: Etude histologique sur les tegument seminaux des Angiospermes. Soc. d. 

Sci. d. Nancy, 1880, 109. 
Hartwich: Giftiger Sternanis. Schw. Woch. f. Chera. u. Pharm. 1900, 39, 104. 
Lauren: Giftiger und echter Sternanis. Apoth.-Ztg. 1896, 11, 650. 
Lenz: Zur anatomischen Unterscheidung der Friichte von Illicium religiosum Siebold 

und /. verum Hook. fil. Archiv. d. Pharm. 1899, 237, 241. 
Lenz: Ueber die Erkennung der giftigen Sikkimifriichte im Sternanis. Pharm. Ztg. 

1899, 44, 44. 



572 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 

Pfister: Zur Kenntniss des echten und des giftigen Sternanis. Vjschr. d. Naturf. Ges. 

in Zurich, 1892, 37, 313. 
Pfister: Zur Unterscheidung von echtem und giftigem Sternanis. Schw. Woch. f. 

Chem. u. Pharm. 1899. 
Pfister: Japanischer Sternanis. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1897, 351. 



SHIKIMI. 

Shikimi (also spelled sikimi, sikkimi, sikimmi, skimmi) (Illicium 
religiosum Siebold) grows in Japan, especially about the Buddhist tem- 
ples, hence the specific name religiosum. 

The poisonous fruit resembles star-anise in morphological and histo- 
logical structure, but in chemical composition is characterized by the 
absence of anethol and the presence of a poisonous principle, " shi- 
kimin." The carpels (Fig. 486) are somewhat smaller than those of 
star-anise, less compressed, and have a thinner beak, usually curved 
upward; but these distinctions are not sufficiently marked to render 
identification, especially in mixtures, absolutely certain. Their odor is 
not like that of anise. 

The following are the chief distinctions from star-anise: 

Star-anise. Endocarp cells highest (up to 600 /i) near the dehiscence 
surface, gradually passing into the cells of that surface; astrosclercids 
in the fruit column; aleurone grains roughened on the surface, contain- 
ing globoids, rarely single crystalloids. 

Shikimi. Endocarp cells highest (up to 400 n) on under side of 
the fruit cavity (the side furthest from the dehiscence surface) , abruptly 
passing into cells of dehiscence surface; rounded stone cells in the fruit 
column; aleurone grains distinct, smooth, and lustrous, containing 
I to 3 distinct crystalloids and many globoids. 

Tschirch and Oesterle describe the following test: Grind a single 
carpel from which the seed has been previously removed, and boil a 
few minutes with 1-2 cc. of alcohol. Decant off the liquid and add water. 
If the material is shikimi, the liquid remains clear; if star-anise, it becomes 
cloudy, owing to the presence of anethol. If the alcoholic extract from 
shikimi is allowed to evaporate on a watch-glass, a large number of beau- 
tiful crystals of shikiminic acid appear, but the extract from star-anise 
yields only a few indistinct crystals. 

Lenz shakes the diluted alcoholic liquid with freshly rectified petro- 
leum ether boiling below 60°, and evaporates the ethereal solution. From 



SHIKIML yANILLA. 5 7 3 

star-anise a yellow oil with an anise odor is obtained, from shikimi a 
scarcely visible residue with a bedbug odor. 

Vogl and some other authors find the shikiminic acid test unreliable. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See Star-anise, p. 571. 

VANILLA. 

An epiphytic orchid {Vanilla planifolia Andrew, order Orchidacece), 
yields -the so-called vanilla beans of commerce. The term "bean" 
as applied to this fruit is a misnomer, as the plant is not a legume, and 
both the fruit and seeds are radically unlike those of legumes. The 
plant is a native of Mexico, whence the finest grade of vanilla is still 
obtained, but it is cultivated in South America, Reunion (Bourbon 
vanilla), the East African Islands, Tahiti, Java, Ceylon, and various 
tropical regions. 

Mexican vanilla is almost entirely consumed in the United States, 
the European market being largely supplied from Reunion and Mauri- 
tius. Tahiti vanilla has a rank flavor which quite unfits it for use as a 
condiment. 

The ripe fruits are from 12-20 mm. long, in cross-section rounded 
triangular, about the size of a small lead pencil. They are one-celled 
capsules formed by the union of three fruit leaves, but dehiscing into 
two longitudinal valves of unequal size. The fruits ripen in from seven 
to nine months; they are picked, however, when fully formed but only 
partially matured. The drying is effected either by sunshine, artificial 
heat, or calcium chloride, and is supplemented by a sweating process, 
which develops the delightful aroma so characteristic of the commercial 
product. When ready for the market the fruits are tough, flexible, dark 
brown, nearly black, with an oily luster, and are often coated with a bloom 
of fine crystals. They are marked by numerous longitudinal furrows 
and taper toward both ends, bearing at the apex a small head with a 
shallow depression. After soaking in water they swell to their original 
triangular shape. In cross-section (Fig. 490) the fruit is one-celled, 
containing great numbers of minute black seeds borne on six forked 
placentae and embedded in a clear yellow balsam. 

The chief flavoring principle of vanilla is not an essential oil but a 
crj'StaUine solid, vanillin, present in amounts ranging from 1.5 to 3.0 
per cent. In V. pompona Schiede, V. Guyanensis Split., V. palmarnm 



574 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 

Lindl., and V. aromatica Sw., the content of vanillin is much smaller, while 
in V. inodora it is entirely absent. Vanillin occurs in considerable amount 
in the sap of coniferous and other woods, from which formerly it was 




Fig, 490. Vanilla {Vanilla planijolia). Cross section of fruit. X8. (Berg.) 



prepared. It has also been found in Siam benzoin and in raw beet sugar. 
Synthetic vanillin is now made in large quantities from oil of cloves. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The beans, after soaking in water, serve for studying not only the 
macroscopic structure, but for cutting microscopic cross-sections and 
preparing surface mounts. 

Pericarp, i. The Epicarp (Figs. 491 and 492, ep) consists of thick- 
walled, finely porous cells, 40-80 fx in diameter, arranged in longitudinal 
rows. Small stomata of elliptical, often nearly circular, form occur 
sparingly. In cross-section a thin, yellow cuticle is evident. Brown 
bodies (10 jx) embedded in a granular ground substance, also short pris- 
matic crystals of calcium oxalate, and less often crystals of vanillin, are 
the cell-contents. 

2. The Hypoderm Cells are larger and thicker- walled than those of 
the epicarp. They are more or less coUenchymatously thickened and 
longitudinally elongated and have distinctly beaded walls. In Mexican, 
Panama, Honduras, and some other Central American varieties, the 
pores are greatly elongated, usually spirally, less often longitudinally 
or transversely, giving the tissue a highly characteristic appearance. 
This peculiar structure is not found in Bourbon, South American, or the 
other common varieties, the pores being either round or oval. 



MANILLA. 



575 



3- Mesocarp (Figs. 491 and 493, p). This is a loose parenchyma 
of large, thin-walled cells often 150 ^ in diameter, with dark-colored 
contents. Here and there narrow but elongated cells, commonly arranged 
end to end in longitudinal rows, contain large bundles of extraordinarily 
long raphides of calcium oxalate reaching 500 /( in length, which, in 
the preparation of the specimen, are often broken into short pieces. 
They are best seen after treating tangential sections with alkah. To 
demonstrate the presence of vanillin, mount a cross-section in 5 per cent 
phloroglucin solution and draw a drop of sulphuric acid under the 




Fig. 491. Vanilla. Cross section of pericarp, ep epicarp; p mesocarp with K crystals; 
pi inner layers of mesocarp; 5 papillae of endocarp. Xi6o. (Moeller.) 

cover-glass. A magnificent carmine color appears immediately. The 
numerous bundles running through the mesocarp are of the collateral 
or endogenous type, consisting of spiral and reticulated vessels, jointed 
porous elements, sieve tubes, and bast fibers. Tschirch and Oesterle have 
noted that the pores of the latter are oval and are not accompanied by 
the diagonal fissures characteristic of most bast fibers. The cells of 
the inner mesocarp are smaller than in the outer and middle layers. 

4. The Inner Epidermis between the three pairs of placentae bears 
numerous thin-walled, glandular papillae {s) about 300 /x long, filled with 



576 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



balsam. Tschirch and Oesterle find that the secretion is formed between 
the cuticle and the cell-wall proper. The epidermis on the placentae is 



n—r 




^yx^L^^Ju. 



Fig. 492. Vanilla. Outer layers of fruit in surface view, ep epicarp with v crystals of 
calcium oxalate; /> parenchyma. X160. (Moeller.) 

of thin-walled, elongated elements. On the surface between the mem- 
bers of each pair of placentae, the epidermal and subepidermal layers 






Fig. 493. Vanilla. Longitudinal section of fruit flesh, p parenchyma with raphides; 
5/) spiral vessel; v; pitted vessel. X160. (Moeller.) 

are made up of longitudinal bundles of thread-Hke mucilaginous cells 
which serve as a conducting tissue for the pollen tubes. They have 
been studied by Busse, Tschirch, and others. 



yy4NlLLA. 



S11 



Spermoderm (Fig. 494). The exceedingly minute black seeds (less 
than 0.5 mm. long and about two-thirds as broad) have been aptly com- 




FiG. 494. 



Vanilla. Elements of seed. S whole seed, under a lens; ep epidermis; p 
parenchyma; E embryo. (Moeller.) 



pared by T. F. Hanausek to gunpowder. Owing to the dark-colored 
pigment in the spermoderm, the seeds must be boiled with alkali and 
crushed before any structure whatever is evident. 

1. The Outer Epidermal Cells {ep) are polygonal, 15-30 /i broad 
and reach 75 ij. in length. After boiling with alkah, they are still dark 
brown, but are sufficiently transparent to show that the cavity is reduced 
to a narrow sHt, owing to the thickened outer and side walls. 

2. The Inner Layers (p) are of elongated, parenchymatous cells, which, 
like those of the epidermis, are of a brown color. 

Embryo (£). The endosperm being absent, the kernel of the seed 
consists entirely of the embryo, which is usually undeveloped. 



DIAGNOSIS. 

Whole Vanilla seldom reaches the consumer, but is used by manu- 
facturers and apothecaries in the preparation of tincture or extract of 
vanilla. Although the vanilla may not be of the grade represented, or 
may have been previously robbed of a portion of its flavoring principles, 
the fruits themselves cannot be successfully imitated. Chemical means 
must be resorted to for the detection of Peru balsam, benzoic acid, and 
other materials with which the fruits are sometimes treated, also to secure 
evidence of exhaustion. Substitution of Pompona vanilla or the fruits 
of other inferior species may be detected by macroscopic examination. 

Ground Vanilla is an article of commerce used by some manufacturers, 
who find it more easily extracted than the whole fruit. A preparation 
of the ground fruit with sugar is also on the market for domestic use. 
Both of these are subjects for microscopic examination. In certain dry 
preparations, no vanilla product at all is present, the flavor being due 



5 78 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 

to artificial vanillin or coumarin, or both. In such cases the absence of 
the histological elements of true vanilla is established by microscopical 
examination, and the presence of vanillin or coumarin is determined 
by chemical analysis. 

The identification of vanilla in powder form requires great care on 
the part of the microscopist. The balsam papillae (Fig. 491, s), although 
the most characteristic of the fruit tissues, owing to their delicate structure, 
are seldom found intact in the powder. By far the greater part of the 
fruit flesh is of parenchyma with no distinctive characters, which, like the 
epidermis, might easily be confounded with the corresponding tissues 
of other fruits. Of value in identification are the exceedingly long, 
although often broken, raphides (Fig. 493, 0), also in lesser degree the 
elements of the bundles (Fig. 493, sp, n). 

Whole seeds (Fig. 494, S) occur in large numbers in the ground 
product. After boiling with alkali, the epidermal cells {ep) are recognized 
by their brown color and thick walls. 

Tonka beans (p. 273) are detected by their characteristic palisade 
cells and column cells. 

Vanilla Extracts are grossly adulterated with tonka-bean extract, 
synthetic vanillin, and coumarin, caramel being employed to imitate the 
appearance of the genuine extract. Obviously the detection of these 
forms of adulteration falls to the chemist and not the microscopist. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Hanausek, T. F. (10, 16, 48); 
Mace (26); Meyer, A. (27); Moeller (29, 30, 32); Molisch {t,^); Planchon et Collin 
(34); Schimper (37); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (43, 45). 
Busse: Studien iiber die Vanille. Arb. Kaiserl. Ges. 1898, 15, i. 

H.artwich: Vehtr ^leYrMchidtr Vanilla Guianensis. Ber. pharm. Ges. 1895, 0,381.. 
Jelliffe: Vanilla, Microscopy of Fruit. Journ. Pharm. 1898, 5, 35. 
Tschirch: Die Tela conductrix der Vanillefrucht. Schw. Woch. Chem. Pharm. 



VANILLON. 

The fruits of Vanilla pompona Schiede, known in the trade as pom- 
pona or La Guayra vanilla, also as vanillon, are shorter than those of 
genuine vanilla (maximum length 15 cm.) and much thicker (maximum 
25 mm.). Their odor is different from true vanilla, resembling more 
that of the tonka bean and benzoin. The pods of Guiana vanilla (V. 
Guyanensis Split.) are as long as the genuine, but three or four times 



VANILLON. BAYBERRY. 



579 



as broad, while those of palm, vanilla {V. palmarum Lindl.), also 
obtained from Guiana, are but 5 cm. long and 15 mm. broad. Of 
these only pompona vanilla is of commercial importance. 

HISTOLOGY. 

This species is characterized by the large cells of both the pericarp 
and hypoderm. The epicarp cells (Fig. 495) are about 400 fx long and 




Fig. 495. Vanillon (Vanilla Pompona). Surface view of ep epicarp and p hypoderm. 

X 160. (MOELLER.) 

150 /< broad; the stomata, however, are small (60 /i). Even larger 
than the epicarp cells are those of the hypoderm, which never have 
spirally elongated pores. 

BAYBERRY. 

The bay-tree or laurel of the ancients {Laiirus nobilis L,, order Laura- 
cece) is still grown in the Levant. It should 
not be confused with Myrica acris Schwarz, 
the leaves of which are used for the prepara- 
t on of bay rum. 

The dried fruit (Fig. 496) is ovate or glob- ^lo. 496. Barberries {Lau- 
i:lar, 8-12 mm. in diameter, lustrous, dark ''"^ nobuis), natural size, 
brown or green, with numerous wrinkles on 

the surface. It has a brittle shell, consisting of united pericarp and sper- 
moderm, within which is an embr}^o with two fleshy cotyledons. 




5 So 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



HISTOLOGY. 

Pericarp (Fig. 497). i- The Epicarp (epi) consists of small polyg- 
onal cells with a reticulated cuticle, and occasional stomata. 




epi 



oil 



mes 



i end 



- — S 



Fig. 497. Bayberry. Shell in cross section. Pericarp consists of epi epicarp; mes 
mesocarp with oil oil cells, and end endocarp; 5 spermoderm. (Moeller.) 

2. Hypoderm. This consists of small cells similar to those of the 
epicarp. 

3. Mesocarp (mes). Numerous oil cells (oil) are distributed through 
the parenchymatous ground tissue. They contain either essential oil 
or resin. 

4. Endocarp (end). The colorless stone cells are radially elongated 



BAYBERRY. 



5S1 



upward of 80 // high. In surface view they are deeply sinuous in out- 
line (Fig. 498). 

Fig. 498. Bayberry. Endocarp in surface view. (MoelleR.) 

Spermoderm (Fig. 497, S). The cells are thin-walled, and more or 
less compressed. Through this tissue pass the raphe and its branches. 

Embryo (Fig. 499). The epidermal cells are small; those further 
inward larger (up to 100 /«). Most of the cells contain starch grains 




Fig, 499. Bayberry. Cotyledon in cross section, showing starch grains. (Moeller.) 

up to 8 [i, occurring singly or in small aggregates ; some however are 
filled with colorless essential oil. 




582 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The palisade stone cells of the endocarp, sinuous in surface view (Fig. 
498), and the small starch grains (Fig. 499) are the important elements. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Moeller (30, 31); Planchon et Collin 
(34); Vogl (45). 

JUNIPER BERRY. 

The juniper (Juniperus communis L.) is a well-known forest tree 
growing in Europe, Asia, and America. It docs not, like most gymno- 

sperms, bear a cone, but a round berry 
about the size of a large blueberry, which 
it further resembles in having a bloom of 
a gray-blue color. Strictly speaking, it is 
not a fruit. At the time of fertilization 
the three ovules, like those of all other 
^^ gymnosperms, are naked in the axils of 

Fig. soo. Juniper Berry (J»m>ms ^ ^^ ^ • j ^ f ^ 

commums). / surface view, natural '^ ^ j t> o 

size. II cross section, enlarged, velopmcnt the bracts close about the 

ovules and coalesce at the edges, form- 
ing the globular berry (Fig. 500). 

At the apex of the berry three radiating lines mark where the three 
bracts meet, while midway between these lines the small extremities of 
the bracts are evident as three minute protuberances. 

Tschirch and Oestcrle observe that these berries are morphologically 
closely related to true fruits, the chief difference being that in the latter 
the metamorphosed leaves which form the ovary are united from the 
first, whereas in the former this union does not take place until after 
fertilization. Each seed is united with the fruit on the outer side except 
at the apex, but is free on the inner side. The fruit has an agreeable 
resinous odor and taste. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Dried juniper berries, as obtained from the apothecary, may be used 
for studying the gross anatomy of the fruit, also the microscopic structure 
of the principal tissues, although more satisfactory results are obtained 
with fresh berries, especially if picked at different stages of ripeness. 



JUNIPER BERRY. 



583 



For convenience, the tissues are here designated by the same terms 
as are employed for true fruits. 

Pericarp (Fig. 501). The Epicarp Cells (Fig. 502, ep) in surface 
view are rounded polygonal, with thick walls pierced here and there 
by pores. Division into daughter cells is often apparent. A brown 
granular substance fills the cells. On the edges where the bracts meet, 
these epidermal cells are extended so as to form blunt papilla. 

2. Fruit Flesh (p). The rounded, sac-like cells of the ground tissue 
are so loosely united that they separate readily on pressing with the cover- 
glass. In this tissue are large resin cavities often i mm. broad and twice 
as long, lined on the inner surface by a layer of secreting cells. On 




Fig. 501. Juniper Berry, Cross section of seed, and enveloping tissues. (Tschirch.) 



removing the angular seeds from, the fruit, one or more of these sacs 
filled with solid resin often remain attached to the surface. The con- 
spicuous elements of the fibro-vascular bundles are numerous bast fibers 
and reticulated vessels, also a few spiral vessels. 

Spermoderm. On the outer side where the seed is united with the 
fruit flesh no demarcation between the tissues of the two is evident; 
but on the free inner surface there are five distinct layers. 

I. The Outer Epidermis and 2. The Subepidermal Coat each con- 
sists of a single layer of thin-walled cells, the former separating readily 
from the latter in cross-section. 

3. Sclerenchyma (Fig. 502, sc). The dense stone-cell tissue varies 
in thickness from two to over ten cell layers. Each of the thick-walled, 



584 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



porous stone cells contains in its narrow cavity a beautiful crystal of 
calcium oxalate. 

4. Compressed Cells form the fourth layer, and 

5. An Inner Epidermis of longitudinally elongated, thin- walled cells 
completes the spermoderm. 

Perisperm. This is a thin membrane of several layers of parenchyma, 




ep 



Fig. 502. Juniper Berry. Elements in surface view. e/> epicarp; ^ cells from fruit flesh ; 
sc stone cells with crystals, from spermoderm. (Moeller.) 



of which only the longitudinally-elongated cells of the outer layer are 
well preserved. 

Endosperm. Tschirch and Oesterle have noted that the outer wall of 
the outer cell layer consists of: (i) an outer cuticularized lamella of 
minute rod-like elements appearing granular in surface view; (2) a yellow- 
middle lamella, also cuticularized, and (3) an inner membrane of cellu- 
lose. The endosperm cells contain aleurone grains up to 8 ;i and fat. 

The Embryo is axially located and consists of a radicle about 2 mm. 
long and two flattened cotyledons about half the length of the radicle. 
The cell-contents are the same as those of the endosperm. 



JUNIPER BERRY. CASSIA. 585 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Juniper berries are used in medicine and very extensively in making 
gin. The residue from the distilleries is a pepper adulterant. 

The epicarp cells (Fig. 502, ep), especially the papillae from the sutures, 
the rounded pulp cells {p), and the stone cells {sc) of the spermoderm each 
containing a crystal, are the elements worthy of special notice. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Meyer (24); Moeller (28, 29); Planchon 
et Collin (34); Tschirch u. Oesterle (37); Villiers et Collin (39). 

BARKS. 

The only barks of importance as food products are cinnamon, cassia, 
and a few others used occasionally as spices. 

All of these contain conspicuous stone cells and most of them charac- 
teristic starch grains, also bast fibers and cork cells. 

The general structure of barks is discussed on p. 40. 

CASSIA (CINNAMON). 

Cassia (known in retail trade as cinnamon) is the bark of various 
species of Cinnamomum (order Lauracece). 

Three leading sorts, each with distinct physical characters, are recog- 
nized by English and American importers: (i) China or Canton, (2) 
Batavia, and (3) Saigon. 

IMalabar, Indian and other cassias are of comparatively small im- 
portance. 

China or Canton Cassia, the Cassia lignea of the pharmacists, is the 
commonest and also the cheapest grade. The average wholesale price 
is about half that of Batavia and one-fifth that of Saigon. The tree 
from which it is obtained (C. Cassia BL, C. aromatlcum Nees.) is a small 
evergreen growing in southeastern China. The commercial bark is 
unscraped or only partially scraped, brown-gray, 0.2-3.0 mm. thick, 
more or less convolute. It is commonly packed in mats containing two 
bundles about 50 cm. long, weighing i kg. each. The outer part of the 
bundles consists of long pieces, the inner part of chips and often a con- 
siderable amount of dirt. Broken cassia or chips consisting of short 
pieces with more or less dirt and other impurities is packed in bales. 



5^6 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 

Winton, Ogden and Mitchell found in samples of whole China cassia 
from American importers 3.01-5.58 per cent of ash and 0.93-1.64 per 
cent of essential oil. One sample of chips obviously unfit for consump- 
tion contained 20 per cent of ash and 15.7 per cent of sand. 

Batavia Cassia is probably obtained from C. Burmanni Bl. The 
tightly-rolled quills are light buff or red-brown, 0.5-2 mm. thick, often 
50-75 cm. long. Light-colored thread-like bast-fiber groups are evident 
on close inspection of the outer surface. This grade is distinguished 
from China and Saigon by the slimy, glutinous mass formed on treat- 
ment of the powdered material with water, also by the higher percentage 
of alcohol extract (11-17 per cent). The flavor is moderately pungent 
and distinctly mucilaginous. 

Saigon Cassia, the most pungent and expensive of all cassia and 
cinnamon barks, is obtained from a tree grown in Cochin-China, stated 
to be C. Loureirii (Laiirus cinnamomum Lour.). The bark varies 
from a fraction of a millimeter to over 5 mm. in thickness; the thin 
being chocolate-brown, the thick, gray-brown. Usually it is put up in 
bundles about 30 cm. long, and weighing 1.5-2 kg., each consisting 
entirely of thick, medium or thin bark. Broken Saigon (chips) often con- 
tains pieces 5-10 mm. thick. 

The samples examined by Winton, Ogden and Mitchell contained 
on the average over 4 per cent of essential oil, and in some cases over 
5 per cent. 

Malabar Cassia and Cassia Vera are terms loosely applied to inferior 
grades of uncertain origin. 

Indian Cassia comes into the market in small amount from Tra van- 
core and other regions. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Transverse and longitudinal sections are readily cut after soaking 
over night in water. These, as well as the powdered material, are ex- 
amined directly in water (noting especially the starch grains) and again 
after treatment with alkali. 

China Cassia, i. The Epidermis, -which, is found only in young bark 
is strongly cuticularized. 

2. Cork (Fig. 503, su). The cells of the outer layers are of the usual 
thin-walled type, those further inward are stone cork with uniformly 
thickened porous walls, while those in the layer adjoining the phellogen 
are thickened on the outer and radial sides in such a manner as to form 



CASSIy4. 



587 



in cross-section a series of arches. The pnellogen or active layer is 
recognized by the thin walls. Brown contents are often present in the 
cork cells, particularly those with thick walls. 

3. Cortex {cor). The ground parenchyma is of flattened cells with 



\cor 




Fig. 503. China Cassia {Cinnamomum Cassia). Cross section of bark, su cork cells; 
cor cortex; 5c/ stone-cell ring (pericycle) ; ^/j bast. (Moeller.) 

rather thick, brown walls. Radial partitions often divide the cells into 
daughter cells. Distributed through this ground tissue are stone cells, 
many of which are thickened only on the inner side. Both the 
parenchyma and the stone cells contain rounded starch grains (Fig. 
505, B) ranging up to 20 n in diameter (mostly over 10 //), with a 



588 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



more or less distinct hilura. Most of the grains are in aggregates of 2-4 
individuals 

4. The Pericycle (scl) in the young stem consists of groups of bast 
fibers (Fig. 504, b) and separating parenchyma, but later numerous stone 




Fig. 504. China Cassia. Radial longitudinal section of bark, pr parench)mia of cortex; 
bp parenchyma of bast; b bast fibers; st stone cells; sch mucilage cells; 5 sieve tubes; 
OT medullary rays. X160, (Moeller.) 

cells are formed, which after a time make up the greater part of the ring. 
The bast fibers are longer and thinner-walled than those of the bast; 
the stone cells are larger and thicker- walled than those of the cortex. 

5. The Bast Zone (ph), as seen in cross-section, consists of broad 
radial bands of phloem elements separated by narrow medullary rays. 
The ground tissue of the phloem is a parenchyma of narrow, longitudi- 
nally elongated cells, among which are distributed larger cells containing 
mucilage or oil, also bast fibers. Numerous starch grains like those of 
the cortex occur in the parenchyma. The inner membrane of the oil 



CAISSA. 589 

cells secretes essential oil and resin, which either forms brown masses 
in the cells or impregnates the tissues. Sections mounted in glycerine 
or alcohol often show the thick, colorless, stratified secondary membrane 
of the mucilage cells, which dissolves on addition of water. Character- 
istic of the bast fibers are their moderate length (seldom over 600 /x), 
spindle shape, thick homogeneous walls, and narrow cavity. In the 
middle they vary up to 45 /t in diameter. The sieve tubes are collapsed 
and are arranged in tangential rows. The medullary rays are usually 
two cells broad except at the more or less funnel-shaped outer ends. They 
contain starch grains and numerous oxalate needles. 

Batavia Cassia, being scraped, contains little cork and cortex tissues. 

The mucilage cells, though rather small, are numerous. The most 
characteristic elements are the starch grains, which are smaller (usually 
less than 10 [i) and less numerous than those of China and Saigon, and 
the numerous oxalate crystals, chiefly in the medullary rays, which, as 
may be seen after treatment with alkali, are tabular or prismatic, not 
needle-shaped. These characters, with the peculiar taste and the slimy 
mass formed on treating the powder with water, are well marked. 

Saigon Cassia. The thin bark has practically the same structure as 
that of China cassia; the thick bark (2-10 mm.) is characterized by 
the presence of large, tangentially elongated, thick-walled stone cells 
of the bast, which are arranged side by side in enormous radial groups, 
often 1-2 mm. long. Two or more cork systems, each with its phellogen, 
are often present. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Whole Cassia of the three ?bmmon sorts may be distinguished by 
the general appearance and the characters given in the following analyt- 
ical key: 

(a) Needle-shaped crystals in medullary rays; starch grains abundant, mostly over 
10 n; alcohol extract under 10%. 

1. Few or no stone cells in bast; flavor mild; essential oil under 2% China. 

2. Numerous stone cells in bast of thick bark; very pungent; essential oil 2-6%. 

Saigon, 
{h) Prismatic crystals in medullary rays; starch grains not abundant, mostly under 
10 p.; alcohol extract over 10%. 

3. Flavor mild, distinctly mucilaginous; essential oil under 3% BatavJa. 

It should be remembered that the microscopic characters of the thick 
and thin bark are somewhat different, and that the chemical composi- 
tion is changed by exhaustion. 



590 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



Other species of Cinnamomum yielding inferior barks are occasionally 
substituted for real cinnamon. One of these described by Micko closely 
resembled Batavia cassia in its structure as well as its mucilaginous prop- 
erties, but was scarcely at all pungent. 

Ground Cassia (" Cinnamon ") may be prepared from one variety 
of cassia, or from a mixture of several varieties, often with the addition 
of cassia buds. The conspicuous elements common to all the cassia 
barks are rounded starch grains (Fig. 505, B), usually in aggregates of 2 




Fig. 505. China Cassia. A elements of the powdered bark: hj bast fibers; st pericycle 
stone cells; stp cortex stone cells; pr cortex parenchyma; bp bast parenchyma; P 
sclerenchymatized cork. Xi6o. B starch grains, X 600. (Moeller.) 

to 4; spindle-shaped bast fibers (Jbj) with narrow lumen ; stone cells {st), 
often thickened only on one side {stp) ; and brown parenchyma. Cork 
cells (P) are present if the bark is unscraped. Oxalate needles (China, 
Saigon) or prisms (Batavia) may be seen on careful examination. All 
the elements named but the starch grains are best studied after treat- 
ment with alkali. 

The elements of cassia buds are described in the following section. 

Adulterants. Exhausted cassia; cassia chips, containing wood, leaves, 
and dirt; bran; biscuit; millet; oil cakes; nutshells; foreign barks; saw- 
dust; mineral matter. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Greenish (14); Hanausek, T. 
F. (10, 16); Hassall (19); v. Hohnel (48); Leach (25); Mace (26); Meyer, A. (27, 
28); Moeller (29, 30, 31, 32); Planchon et Collin (34); Schimper (37); Tschirch u. 
Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (43, 45). 



C/1SSIA. CASSIA BUDS- 591 

Bischoff: Vjschr. offent. Gesundheits. 1870, 22, 395. 

Garnier: I^tude microscopique et chimique de diverses poudres de cannelle. Jour. 

Pharm. 9, 473. 
Gichard: Verfalschung von Zimmtrindenpulver. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1895, 

9, 281. 
Hanausek, T. F.: Chips. Ztschr. osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1896, 34. 
Hartwich: Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Zimmt. Arch. Pharm. 1901, 181. 
Malfatti: Eine neue Verfalschung des Zimmtpulvers. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 

1891, 5, 5. 
MiCKO: Ueber eine falsche Zimmtrinde. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm. 1900, 

3, 305- 
Perrot: Sur I'origine de I'anneau sclereux des canelles. Jour, pharm. chim. 1890, 2, 

426. 
Pfister: Zur Kenntniss der Zimmtrinden. Forschber. Lebensm. Hyg. 1894, 1, i. 
Pfister: Zur Zimmtuntersuchung. Forschber. Lebensm. Hyg. 1894, 1, 540. 
ScHMiTZ-DuMONT : Ueber eine vermeintliche Zimtfalschung. Ztschr. oflF. Chem. 1904. 

CASSIA BUDS. 

The flowevs of a Chinese tree (probably Cinnamomum Cassia BL, 
which also yields cassia bark), gathered shortly after blooming, are known 
in commerce as cassia buds. They are dark brown, woody, club- or 
top-shaped, 5-10 mm. in diameter, with a short stem or pedicel. The 
perianth forms a wrinkled, urn-shaped capsule, turned in at the top, 
in which is the Hghter-colorcd, thick, smooth, one-celled ovary. In the 
small circular opening between the six indistinct perianth lobes is the 
smooth exposed surface of the ovary with the style or its scar. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The Pedicel, or flower stem, may or may not be attached to the bud. 
It should not be confused with the narrow under portion of the perianth. 

1. The Epidermis consists of strongly cuticularized cells, with color- 
less walls, similar to the epidermal cells of cloves, and thick-walled, often 
crooked, unicellular hairs, seldom over 120 /t long (Fig. 506, h). 

2. Cortex. In the outer layers this is made up of large parenchyma 
cells and oil cells; in the inner layers, of smaller cells. The parenchyma 
has brown walls and contains small ovate or spindle-shaped simple starch 
grains and needles of calcium oxalate. The oil cells often have muci- 
laginous contents. 

3. Sclerenchyma Ring (Pericycle). The elements are bast fibers 
and stone cells. The bast libers are in closely crowded groups. Some 
are broad, blunt, unicellular, with broad cavities (/), others sharp-pointed 



59^ 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



and jointed {hj). Both forms are very different from the bast fibers 
of the bark. The stone cells {st) in cross section appear much like the 
bast iibers, but are usually larger (up to 90 /(). They are irregular in 
form, and often thickened more on one side than on the other. 

(4) Bundles. The vessels are narrow (15 11), mostly reticulated or 
scalariform, less often spiral, and are arranged in radial rows. 

(5) The Pith is narrow. 

Perianth. This has much the same structure as the pedicel, but 
the xylem and phloem are more separated, and the pith in the basal part 




Fig. 506. Cassia Buds (Ciiinamomuin Cassia). 

Elements of pedicel: bj bast fibers; / elongated sclerenchyma cells; st stone cells; g 
vessels; j/ starch. 

Elements of perianth: ep epidermis; h hairs; rp cortex parenchyma; o oil cells; bp 
bast parench^TTia. 

Elements of ovary: ep} epicarp in cross section and surface view, with c cuticle; fp 
sclerenchyma of mesocarp; end endocarp. 

X160. (MOELLER.) 



is much broader. The cortex parenchyma has rather thick walls and 
red-brown contents, becoming blue with iron chloride. The oil cells are 
30-80 /( in diameter, and contain red-brown resinous oil. A colorless, 
mucilaginous parenchyma with small crystal rosettes and occasional 
large crystals forms the inner epidermis of the cavity. 

Ovary. The epicarp {ep}) is well developed on the smooth, yellow, 
exposed surface. The cuticle is thick, and penetrates between the cells, 
giving them the appearance of being thick-walled. It is distinguished 



C /I SSI A BUDS. CEYLON CINNAMON. 593 

from the brown cell walls by its lighter color. Beneath the epidermis 
is a layer of sclerenchyma (}p). The seeds are undeveloped. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Ground cinnamon often contains both cassia bark and cassia buds. 
The buds cost more than China and Batavia cassia, and are more pun- 
gent. Several elements serve to distinguish the buds from the bark: 
(i) thick-walled crooked hairs (Fig. 506, h); (2) reticulated and scalari- 
form vessels; (3) broad, blunt bast fibers (/) with broad cavities; (4) 
jointed fibers (bj). Hairs and vessels are not found in the bark, and the 
bast fibers are of a very different type. The bark has no tissues like 
the epidermal layers of the pedicel, perianth (ep) and ovary (epj). The 
sclerenchyma of the ovary (fp) is also characteristic. Stone cells of 
much the same type occur in both the bark and the buds. The starch 
grains of the buds are not in aggregates as in the bark, but are not 
distinguishable from the single grains of the latter. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See Cassia, p. 590. 

CEYLON CINNAMON. 

True cinnamon is obtained from the young branches of Cimiamomtim 
Ceylonicum Breyne, a small tree cultivated in Ceylon and parts of India. 
The bark is carefully separated from the branches, scraped, dried, and 
the thin pieces, scarcely 0.5 mm. thick, are curled one within another 
£0 as to form sticks, 5-15 mm. in diameter and often 1-2 meters long. 
On the outer surface the scraped bark is buff, streaked with hghter-colored 
bast-fiber bundles. The flavor suggests a mixture of cassia and calamus. 

HISTOLOGY AND DIAGNOSIS. 

In structure cinnamon (Fig. 507) closely resembles cassia, but the 
stone cells of the pericycle are longer and more uniformly thickened, 
the bast fibers are narrower and more numerous, the parenchyma cells 
of the bast are smaller, and the starch grains are only about half as large 
(usually 6-8 //). The resemblance between cinnamon and Batavia 
cassia in these details is much closer, particularly as regards the starch 
grains, which are practically identical in the two species. Unlike Batavia, 
but like China cassia, the crystals in the bast are needle-shaped. 



594 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



Fortunately it is seldom necessary to resort to microscopic examination, 
as the product is usually sold whole, and can be readily identified by 
its general appearance and its peculiar flavor. 




"sch 



sell m s 

Fig. 507. Ceylon Cinnamon {Cinnamomitm Ceyloniciim). Cross section of bark, pr 
inner layers of cortex with pb primary bast-fiber bundle; st stone-cell ring (pericycle); 
bast consists of b bast fibers, 5 sieve tubes, sch mucilage cells, k parenchyma with raphides, 
and w medullary rays. X160. (Moeller.) 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 



See Cassia, p. 590. 



CLOVE BARK. 

The bark of a small Brazilian tree (Dicypellium caryophyllatum 
Nees., order Lauracece) is variously known as clove bark, clove cassia, 
clove cinnamon, and (in pharmacy) Cortex cassia caryophyllatus. 
Like Ceylon cinnamon it comes into the market in compound quills- 
The bark is 1-2 mm. thick, more or less flaky on the outer surface, finely 
striate on the inner. It is brittle, and breaks with a smooth fracture. 
Cross sections examined with the naked eye show a thin yellow outer 
ring and a broad inner zone with yellow dots in a red-brown ground. 



CLOyE BARK. 



595 



HISTOLOGY. 

I. Cork. The cells in most of the layers are thin-walled, but in 
two or more layers are thickened on the outer side. Only traces of the 
cork tissue are found on the commercial bark. 




Fig. 508. Ceylon Cinnamon. Tangential section of bark, p bast parenchyma; sch 
mucilage cells; b bast fibers; s sieve tubes; m medullary rays. X 160. (Moeller.) 



2. Phelloderm (Fig. 509, P). The inner walls of the cells are strongly 
thickened and porous. 

3. Cortex. The tissue is of parenchyma cells with a few oil cells. 

4. Pericycle. A ring of stone cells {st) thickened chiefly on the inner 
side separates the cortex from the bast. 

5. Bast. Tangential layers of parenchyma cells with occasional 
oil cells {oe) alternate with groups of sieve tubes {s). In old bark the 
parenchyma is replaced here and there by stone-cell groups {sc). Bast 
fibers are absent. The primary medullary rays broaden greatly at the 
outer ends, separating the phloem into wedge-shaped groups, which 
extend as far as the pericycle. The parenchyma of the bast and the 



596 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



medullar)^ rays contains numerous oxalate needles, also formless lumps 
of starch. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Starch occurs only in small amount and not in well-formed grains. 
The cells of the pcricyclc (Fig. 509, si) and phelloderm (P), both thickened 




Fig. 509. Clove Bark {Dicypellium caryophyllatum). P sclerenchymatized cork; rp 
cortex; st stone-cell ring (pericycle); bast consists of 5 sieve tubes, bp parenchyma, 
sc stone cells, oe oil cells, K raphides cells, m primary and ?;?2 secondary medullary rays. 

X 160. (MOELLER.) 

on one side, also the oil cells and oxalate needles, are evident after 
treatment with alkali. 

Vogl describes a substitute Mdiich he regards as a variety of Cinna- 
momum Culilawan. The structure is much like that of other species of 
cinnamon. 

Another substitute described by Moeller, known as Cortex caryo- 
phyllata (Fig. 511), is characterized by the intensely red-brown con- 



CLOVE BARK. CANELLA BARK. 



597 



tents of the parenchyma elements, and the tangential rows of fibers in 
the bast. 



ip 



\—-oe 





Fig. 510. Clove Bark. Radial longi- 
tudinal section through a stone-cell 
group of the bast, sc stone cells; 
oe oil cells; bp bast parenchyma; 
J sieve tubes. X160. (Moeli.er.) 



Fig. si I- False Cinnamon {^^ Cortex caryophyl- 
latd"). Cross section of bark. K', K", K'" 
three layers of cork; rp cortex parenchyma with 
oe oil cell and 5 crystal sand cell; bj bast fibers; 
bp sclerenchymatized bast parenchyma; k crystal 
cell; m medullary rays. (Moeller.) 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Moeller (26); Planchon et Collin (34); 
Tschirch u. Oesterle (37); Vogl (41). 

CANELLA BARK. 

Canella alba Mussay (order Canellacece) grows wild in the West Indies 
and Florida. The bark, known as white bark or white cinnamon, is a 
well-known drug, the commercial supply coming largely from the Bahama 
Islands. It is also used in the West Indies as a spice. 



598 



SPICES /1ND CONDIMENTS 



The bark is hard, 2-5 mm. thick, Hght buff or reddish, pitted on the 
outer surface, striated on the inner. In cross section numerous yellow 
oil cells are evident, also in the inner bark delicate radiating lines. 

HISTOLOGY. 

I. Cork (Fig. 512, K). Typical cork cells form the outer layers of 
the bark. 




Fig. 512. Canella Bark {CaneUa alba). Cross section. su outer bark consists of K cork 
and ph sclerenchymatized cork; cor cortex with starch cells, and o oil cells; ph bast 
with 5 sieve tubes and m medullary rays containing Kr crystal rossettes. (TsCHiRCH.) 

2. The Phelloderm (ph), separated by the phellogen from the outer 
cork, consists of several layers of quadrilateral stone cells intermixed 
with cork-like cells, all arranged in radial rows. 



CAN ELLA BARK. GINGER. 599 

3. Cortex (cor). The parenchyma contains simple or compound 
starch grains, mostly 6-8 pt (maximum 20 /z), also rosettes of calcium 
oxalate. Large oil cells with rather thick cuticularized walls occur here 
and there. 

4. Bast (ph). Tissues like those of the cortex, also sieve tubes and 
single-rowed medullar}^ rays (m) are conspicuous. An oxalate rosette 
occurs in nearly every medullary cell. Bast fibers are found only between 
the primary and secondary bast, and there but sparingly. 

DIAGNOSIS. 
The large yellow oil cells (Fig. 512, 0), the yellow sclerenchymatized 
cork cells (ph) of the phelloderm, the small starch grains, and the oxalate 
rosettes are the important elements. Sieve plates are often evident in 
the sieve tubes. Bast fibers are almost entirely absent. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hanausek, T. F. (10); v. Hohnel (48); 
Planchon et Collin (34); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (45). 
Greenish: Canella Bark, Pharm. Jour. 1894. 

RHIZOMES. 

The rhizomes of Zingiberaccous plants (ginger, turmeric, zedoar}^, 
and galangal) contain about half their weight of starch in the form of 
large elongated grains with excentric hilum and distinct rings. Reticu- 
lated vessels are notable elements. 

Sweet flag, the only other rhizome of importance as a spice, contains 
very small rounded starch grains. 

The general structure of rhizomes is discussed on p. 44. 

GINGER. 

The ginger plant (Zingiber officinale Roscoe, order ZingiheracecB), a 
native of Southern Asia, is cultivated throughout the tropics. The rhi- 
zomes (so-called roots) are dug in January or February, washed and 
sun-dried either directly or after scraping. They are often bleached 
with chlorinated lime or sulphurous acid, also coated with chalk or gypsum. 
Chalk not only improves the appearance of the product, but in addition 
protects it from the ravages of the drug-store beetle and other insects. 
The rhizomes are flattened somewhat, and branched on one or both 
of the narrow sides. They vary in breadth from 10-25 ^^'^^'^- ^nd in 



6oo 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



length up to lo cm. The fracture is uneven, with protruding fibers. 
Cross sections examined under a lens show numerous yellow oil cells. 

Jamaica, the finest sort, has a rather slender rhizome. It is com- 
monly bleached, and often coated in addition. The rhizomes of Cochin 
are thicker, and come into the market either scraped or bleached. Cal- 
cutta and African are unscraped sorts, distinguished from the preceding 
by their dark -colored corky rind. Japan resembles Cochin in appear- 
ance, but is usually obtained from other species (Z. Zerumhet Roscoe, 
Z. Cassumunar Rxb., Z. Mioga Roscoe, Z. Cemenda Rxb., etc.). 

HISTOLOGY. 

I. Cork. In a rind 0.4 mm. thick about 20 cell-layers are present. 
The cells are large, somewhat flattened, and have thin brown walls, but 
no content. 




— ol 



Fig. 513. Ginger {Zingiher officinale). Cross section of rhizome, en endodermis; fv 
fibro-vascular bundles; oil oil cell. (Moeller.) 

2. Cortex. Inside the cork zone is a zone of about the same thick- 
ness, consisting of small collapsed parenchyma cells interspersed with 



GINGER. 



60 1 



oil cells. Further inward the parenchyma cells are larger, and contain 
numerous starch grains while the oil cells are less abundant. The con- 
tents of each oil cell are contracted into a resin lump. Bundles occur 
sparingly in the cortex. 

3. Endodermis (Fig. 513, en). The cells resemble transversely elon- 
gated parenchyma cells, but their walls are suberized, and they con- 
tain no starch. 

4. Bundle Zone (jv). Inside the endodermis the bundles are arranged 
close together in a circle. The vessels are broad (50 /i), with reticulated 




Fig. 514, Ginger. Longitudinal section of rhizome, h oil cells; p starch parenchyma; 
^vessels; /)/ bast fibers. Xi6o. (Moeller.) 



or scalariform thickenings (Fig. 514, g). They are accompanied by 
long (up to 6 mm.), broad (up to 60 //) fibers, often divided by cross par- 
titions into compartments. The walls are rather thin, and have pores 
crossed by diagonal fissures. 

5. The P arencJiyma cells, like tho^e of the inner cortex, are closely 
packed with starch grains. Oil cells (oil) occur here and there. 

The starch grains (except in Japan ginger) are simple, flattened, 
ovate, with either a rounded angle or a tapering point at the smaller 
end. Being flattened, they appear narrow when viewed on edge. The 
excentric hilum is always in the pointed end. Rings are numerous, but 
indistinct. Most of the grains are 20-30 n long, although smaller grains 
as well as larger (up to 50 //) occur sparingly. T. F. Hanausek was the 



6o2 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 

first to note that the starch grains in Japan ginger (or at least certain 
kinds known under that name) are very different from the type. 
They are partly large, simple, broadly ovate, with very distinct rings, 
and partly small, in twins, triplets, and larger aggregates. The small 
grains are particularly numerous. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Ground Ginger prepared from African and Calcutta rhizomes is brown, 
Avhile that prepared from Jamaica, Cochin, Japan, and other scraped 
or bleached sorts is white or light buff. The chief elements are the 
characteristic starch grains (which make up fully half of the powder), 
reticulated or scalariform vessels (Fig. 514, g), broad bast fibers (bf) with 
rather thin walls, and, in the case of undecorticated sorts, cork cells. 
Large ovate starch grains (Fig. 513) with excentric hilum in the rounded- 
angular or pointed, smaller end occur in all varieties ; small grains in 
twins, triplets, and larger aggregates only in Japan ginger. 

The common adulterants are exhausted ginger, cereal products, Hn- 
seed meal, and other ground oil cakes, nutshells, gypsum, and other 
mineral substances. In America rice bran, consisting of spermoderm 
with more or less starchy matter (p. no), is often used. 

Exhausted Ginger is the residue after treatment with water in the 
manufacture of ginger ale or after exhaustion with alcohol for the prepa- 
ration of ginger extract. In the former case the product is deficient in 
cold-water extract, in the latter case it is deficient in alcohol extract. 
Microscopic examination is of no service in detecting these residues. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Hassall (19); Mace (26); 
Meyer, A. (10, 27); Moeller (29, 30,31, 32); Planchon et Collin (34); Schimper (37); 
Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (43, 45, 48). 
Barthelat: Tanninzellen der Zingiberaceen. Jahr. Pharm. 1894. 
Buchwald: Ingwer. Arb. Kais. Gesundh. 1899, 15, 229. 

Hanausek, T. F.: Eine neue Ingwersorte. Ztschr. allg. osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1883, 465. 
Meyer, A.: Ueber die Rhiz. d. offic. Zingiberaceen. Arch. Pharm. 1881, 401. 
Tschirch: Zur Untersuchung von Rhiz. Zingiberis vind Rhiz. Zedoarie. Schw. Woch. 
Pharm. Chem. 1905. 

TURJVIERIC. 

Curcuma, or turmeric, is the rhizome of Curcuma longa L. (order 
ZingiberacecE), a plant closely related to ginger, grown in India^ China, 
Cochin China, Java, and other tropical countries. 



TURMERIC. 



603 



The main rhizome (round turmeric) is ovate or pear-shaped, up to 
4 cm. long and 3 cm. thick (Fig. 515). The upper part is encircled by 
leaf -scars, the lower part is marked by scars of the secondary rhizomes 
and roots. It is sliced before drying. The sec.ondary rhizomes (long 
turmeric) are 0.5-1.5 cm. thick, elongated, indistinctly ringed, simple 
or sparingly branched. 

The vitality of the rhizomes is destroyed by scalding previous to drying, 
thus converting the grains into lumps, to which the mixture of oil and 




Fig. 515. Turmeric {Curcuma longa). Primary (round) and secondary (long) rhizomes. 

(Hager.) 

curcumin liberated from the oil cells imparts a deep-yellow color. As 
found on the market, the product is hard, tough, and sinks in water. 
The fractured surface is smooth, waxy, of an orange-yellow color. As 
appears in cross section, the rind is thicker than in ginger, constituting 
almost one-quarter of the thickness of the rhizome. It cannot be removed 
by scraping. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Turmeric (Fig. 516) closely resembles ginger in structure, but is 
distinguished by the absence of bast fibers. The epidermis, which in 
parts is well preserved, resembles that of Curcuma Zedoaria, and like 
the latter bears thick-walled unicellular hairs. The yellow lumps (h), 
consisting largely of starch-paste, are colored blue by iodine. On addi- 
tion of dilute alkali the yellow coloring substance (curcumin) with which 
they are impregnated becomes brown-red. Concentrated sulphuric acid 
imparts a crimson color. In addition to the starch lumps, perfect starch 



6o4 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS, 



grains are often present. These resemble the grains of ginger, but are 
usually longer (65 jx) and narrower, although some are broader than 
long. The parenchymatous ground tissue, as- well as the oil cells, is 
colored deep yellow. Neither the vessels {g) nor the cork-cells {K) are 
characteristic. ' 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Turmeric has a characteristic pungent taste, and must be classed 
as a spice as well as a coloring substance. Curry powder is a mixture 
of turmeric, pepper, ginger, coriander, cardamoms, cloves, allspice, cara- 




9 

Fig. 516. Turmeric. Cross section of rhizome. 
A' cork; p parenchyma filled with starch paste; 
h oil cell; g vessel. X i6o. (Moeller.) 




517. Turmeric, 
in surface view. 
(Moeller.) 



Cork cells 
X160. 



way, and fenugreek. Aside from its use in the arts, turmeric is exten- 
sively employed for coloring mustard, noodles, and other food products, 
often with the purpose of deceiving the consumer. 

,It is detected by the yellow starch lumps, which become red-brown 
with alkali, crimson with strong sulphuric acid, and blue with iodine. 
The vessels are like those of ginger; bast fibers, however, are not present. 
A piece of filter-paper impregnated with a concentrated alcoholic extract 
of the material and dried gives on moistening with a dilute solution of 
boric acid (containing in each 10 cc. about six drops of concentrated 
hydrochloric acid) and drying, a cherry-red color, becoming deep blue 
with ammonia. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Greenish (14); Hanausck, T. F.(i6, 17); 
Leach (25); Mace (26); Meyer, A. (27); Moeller (29, 30, 31, 32); Planchon et 
Collin (34); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (45). 



ZEDOARY. 



605 



ZEDOARY. 

The zedoary plant {Curcuma Zedoaria Roscoe, order Zin giber acecB), 
although belonging in the same genus as turmeric, has much larger rhi- 
zomes, which are cut into transverse or longitudinal slices before drying. 
The rind is easily removed by scraping. Numerous oil cells are evident 
in cross section. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The structure (Figs. 518 and 519) resembles that of ginger and tur- 
meric. Like the latter, the epidermis, with thick-walled or unicellular 





Fig. 518. Zedoary {Curcuma Zedoaria). Epider- FiG. 519. Zedoary. Parenchyma of 
mis and starch grains of rhizome. (Moeller.) rhizome showing starch grains and h 

resin lump. X 160. (Moeller.) 

hairs, is here and there well preserved. The cork cells are large and 
thin-walled. Although the starch grains are of the same type as those 
of turmeric, they are distinguished by their more rounded form and more 
uniform size (maximum 80 [x). Many of the grains are ovate, with scarcely 
any evidence of a point. Bast fibers are absent. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Zedoary is now seldom used either as a spice or a drug outside of the 
countries where it is produced. It has a milder taste than turmeric, 



6o6 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



with a suggestion of camphor. The powder (Figs. 518 and 519) resembles 
ginger in color, but bast fibers are absent. 

GALANQAL. 

Common or small galangal is the rhizome of Alpinia officinarum 
Hance (order Zin giber acece), a plant growing on the island of Hainan 
and the neighboring Chinese coast. Alpinia calcarata Roscoe, a closely- 
related species, yields a rhizome used in India. Large galangal, obtained 
from a Javanese species {A. Galanga Sw.), is seldom exported. 

The finger-like rhizomes of the common sort are encircled by fringed 
leaf-scars, and bear also here and there root-scars. They are brown-red 
inside and out, somewhat hard, and have an uneven fracture. The 
thickness of the rind exceeds the diameter of the central cyhnder. Cross 
sections are dotted with dark oil cells and light bundles. 

HISTOLOGY. 

1. The Epidermis (Fig. 520, ep) consists of small polygonal cells 
and stomata. T. F. Hanausek notes that several cell -layers are often 
present. Cork tissue is absent. 

2. Cortex. In the outer layers the parenchyma cells are small, with 
thin dark-red walls, and contain a brown substance in granules and 




Fig. 520. Galangal {Alpinia officinarum). Outer layers of rhizome in surface view, ep 
epidermis; rp brown parenchyma; g tannin grains; h oil cell. Xi6o. (Moeller.) 

lumps, but no starch. Further inward the cells have thick porous walls, 
and contain starch grains. 

3. Endodermis (Fig. 521, end). The cells have suberized walls, and 



GALANGAL. 



607 




Fig. 521. Galangal. Cross section of rhizome, pa parenchyma, oe oil cells, and end endo- 
dermis of the corte.x; ha bast fibers and ge vessels of a bundle. (GiLG.) 




Fig. 522. Galangal. Longitudinal section of rhizome, p thick-walled parenchyma; 
bj bast fibers; g vessel; ant starch. X160. (Moeller.) 



6o8 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



are further distinguished from the adjoining layers by the absence of 
starcho 

4. Central Cylinder. The thick-walled, porous parenchyma is usu- 
ally rich in starch (Fig. 522, am), but the grains differ markedly from 
those of turmeric. As a rule they are simple, club-shaped, with the hilum 
in the larger end. Curious hammer-shaped and other irregular forms 
are also present. They are mostly 20-35 /' lo^g' ^^^^ sometimes exceed 
80 /I. Some rhizomes contain no starch. Distributed among the paren- 
chyma cells are typical oil cells with brown contents. The bundles 

are always accompanied and often surrounded 
by broad bast fibers with walls of medium 
thickness (double 12 fi). The vessels are 
broad (45 /() and have noticeably thicker 
walls than the parenchyma. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The irregular starch grains (Fig. 522, am) 
with hilum in the broad end, the parenchyma 
(p) with thick porous walls, and the bast 
fibers (bf) arc the noteworthy elements. 



W' 



SWEET FLAG. 

The sweet flag, or calamus root, is the dried 

rhizome of Acorus Calamus L. (order Aracea), 

^ ^ c. , -c^^ , A a plant growing in shallow water and swamps. 

Fig. 523. Sweet Flag {Acorus "■ f ts a r 

Calamus). A upper side of The scars of the roots form zigzag markings 

Lterdest'lTd'.lo'SLrof o" 'h'^ »"dcr surface (Fig. 523). The undo- 
flower stalks. B lower side corticated rhizome is dark red-brown, the 

showing root scars. Natural _ . , , , 

size. (VoGL.) 



decorticated cream-colored. 



HISTOLOGY. 

1. Epidermis (Fig. 524, ep). The brown skin consists of polygonal 
epidermal cells with cork cells on the root scars. 

2. The Hypoderm cells are coUenchymatous, arranged in several 

layers. 

3. Cortex (Fig. 525). The collenchyma passes by degrees into a 
highly characteristic loose parenchyma, consisting of chains of small 
rounded polygonal starch cells (s) and oil cells (0) forming a network, 
with large intercellular spaces (i) in the meshes. 



SIVEET FLAG. 



609 



The starch grains are rounded, 3-6 [j. in diameter, and usually occur 
singly, seldom in aggregates of 2-4. Accompanying them in the ceU 



.© g^^m^^^^^g 




Fig. 524. Sweet Flag. Elements of rhizome, ep epidermis; o oil cell. (Moeller.) 



are proteid matter and lumps with the reactions of tannin. According 
to Hartwich the contents of many cells is a substance colored red by 
aniline and hydrochloric acid. 




Fig. 525. Sweet Flag. Cross section of rhizome, j starch parenchyma forming network 
about i intercellular spaces; o oil cells; gjb fibro-vascular bundle; k endodermis. 

(TSCHIRCH.) 

The oil cells are usually larger than the starch cells (30-90 /i), and 
occur mostly at the knots of the network. Each contains a drop of yel- 
low oil or a lump of resin, which often falls out from sections. In the 



6io SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 

outer part of the cortex the bundles consist solely of bast fibers accom- 
panied sonaetimes by crystal fibers ; further inward they are true fibro- 
vascular bundles of the collateral type with a sheath of bast fibers. 

4. Endodermis. The cells are suberized, and contain starch. 

5. Central Cylinder. The ground tissue is a network of starch 
and oil cells like that of the cortex. The bundles are concentric, with 
the xylem elements forming a ring about the phloem. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The powder contains a large amount of small rounded starch grains 
(Fig. 524). Chains of starch cells and oil cells (Fig. 525) from the 
spongy parenchyma are found intact even in the finest powder. The 
walls separating the starch cells are knotty-thickened, but those adjoining 
the intercellular spaces are thin, non-porous. Vessels occur in consid- 
erable numbers. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See pp. 671-674: Moeller (30, 32); Planchon et Collin (34); Tschirch u. Oesterle 
(40); Vogl (44). 

LEAVES. 

Of the leaves used as spices, those of labiates, including sage, mar- 
joram, savory, thyme, and hyssop, are the most important. They are 
characterized by the presence of jointed hairs, multicellular glands and 
glandular hairs. Bay-leaf has thick-walled, porous, sinuous, epidermal 
cells. Other leaves of lesser importance are wormwood, tarragon, and 
sorrel. 

The general structure of leaves is discussed on p. 28. 



SAGE. 

Sage {Salvia officinalis L., order Lahiatce) grows wild in Mediterranean 
countries and is cultivated in many regions for use as a drug and pot herb. 

The leaves (Fig. 526) are petioled, frequently lobed at the base, 
ovate to lanceolate, blunt or pointed, finely scolloped, on the surface finely 
reticulated. When young they are covered with a white or gray felt of 
hairs, later they become almost smooth. 



S/1GE. 



6ii 



HISTOLOGY. 

The Epidermis (Fig. 527) is much the same on both sides, con- 
sisting of polygonal, wavy, or sinuous cells, hairs and stomata, the latter 
being most numerous on the lower side. In addition to the disk-shaped 

glands characteristic of labiates are present 
glands with unicellular or multicellular stems 
and globular heads divided below by a 
vertical partition. Characteristic are the 
whip-like hairs, which are often so abun- 
dant as to form a felt. They are very 
long, narrow, thick-walled, one or more 
celled, with pecuharly thickened partition 
walls. 

Mesophyl cn'stals are absent. 





Fig. 526. Sage {Salvia officinalis). Leaf, 
enlarged. (Moeller.) 



Fig. 527. Sage. Epidermis of leaf with 
Jointed hairs and glands. (Moeller.) 



BIBI4OGRAPHY. 
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: IMoeller (30, 31, 32); Planchon et Collin 
(34); Vogl (44). 
Meyer, Ad.: Off. Blatter u. Krauter. Halle, 1882. 



6l2 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



MARJORAM. 

Marjoram {Origanum Majorana L., order Labiates), a native of northern 
Africa and middle Asia, is a common pot herb in Europe. The dried 
product consists of the leaves, flowers, and branches. 

The leaves (Fig. 528) are petioled, ovate-spatulate, blunt, entire, 
soft-downy on both sides, with veins forming indis- 
tinct loops. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Fig. 528. Marjoram Epidermis. On both sides the cells have un- 

imlf Leaf,nl(uSi equally knotty-thickened walls, which on the upper 

size. (MoELLEP.) si(;[e (Fig. 529) are slightly wavy, on the under side 

(Fig. 530), deeply sinuous. Small stomata, with two adjacent cells, 

occur in large numbers on the under surface, sparingly on the upper. 





Fig. 529. Marjoram. Upper epidermis of leaf in surface view. (Moeller.) 

Three forms of hairs are found on both sides: (i) long, broad, multi- 
cellular, thin-walled, often finely warty hairs, mostly curved at the apex; 



MARJORAM. SAVORY. 613 

(2) glandular hairs with 2-4 celled stalks and 1-2 celled heads; (3) disk- 
shaped glands with cells arranged in a rosette, about which the epidermal 
cells also form a rosette. 

Mesophyl crystals are absent. 




Fig. 530. Marjoram. Lower epidermis of leaf in surface view. (Moeller.) 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Planchon et Collin (34); Vogl (44). 
Meyer, Ad.: Off. Blatter u. Krauter. Halle, 1882. 
Mitlacher: Pharm. Post. 1902. 

5AV0RY. 

Savory or summer savory (Satureja hortensis L., order LahiatCB) 
is a native of southern Europe, and is cultivated over a wide area. The 
leaves, flowers, and branches are used dried as a pot herb. 

The leaves (Fig. 531) arc linear lanceolate, tapering into a short 
petiole, pointed, entire, with glands on the edges and on both sides. Only 
the midrib is prominent. 



6i4 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



HISTOLOGY. 
The Epidermis (Fig. 532) is much the same on both sides. The 

t cell-walls are irregularly sinuous, distinctly porous. 

The numerous stomata have an adjacent cell at each 
pole. Hairs occur sparingly and are of three forms: 
(i) jointed hairs, gradually tapering from the broad 
base to the apex, with smooth or warty, somewhat 
thick walls, some very long (visible to the naked 
eye), of four or more joints, others short, conical, 
2-3 celled; (2) typical disk-shaped glands occurring 
in great numbers in depressions; (3) glandular hairs, 
with fchort stalks and globular 1-2 celled heads. 



Fig. 531. Savory 
{Satureja hortensis). 
Leaf, natural size. 

(MOELLER.) 




Frc. 532. Savory. Epidermis of leaf in surface view. (Moeller.) 
Mesophyl crystals are absent. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Planchon et Collin (34); Vogl (44). 



THYME. HYSSOP. 
THYME. 



615 



This herb (Thymus vulgaris L., order LahiatcE) is used both for culi- 
nary and medicinal purposes. It is a native of 
Europe, where it is also cultivated. The leaves 
are strongly re volute, 10 mm. or less long. Short 
hairs and brown glands are visible under a lens. 



HISTOLOGY. 



Stomata occur on both epidermal layers. The 

very numerous hairs are mostly 1-2 celled, short 

(under 75 /<), conical, distinctly warty. Hairs with 
globular heads arc also present. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 



See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Yogi (45). 



Fig. 533. Hyssop {Hys- 
sopus officinalis). 
Leaf, natural size. 

(MOELLER.) 



HYSSOP. 

This herb {Hyssopus officinalis L., order Lahiafce), a semi -shrubby 




Fig. 534. Hyssop. Upper epidermis of leaf in surface view. (Moeller.) 

plant with small leaves, is a native of southern Europe and a common 
garden plant in other parts of the Old World. 



6i6 



SPICES A^D CONDIMENTS. 



The leaves (Fig. 533) are sessile, lanceolate, entire, finely reticulated, 
when dry rolled up and wrinkled on the edges. The side veins are not 
prominent. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Epidermis. Stomata, disk-shaped glands, and short unicellular warty 
hairs are found on both surfaces. The cell- walls on the upper side are 




Fig. 535. Hyssop. Lower epidermis of leaf in surface view. (Moeller.) 

shghtly wavy (Fig. 534), those of the under side sharply sinuous (Fig. 
535). Two adjacent cells, one at each pole, surround each stonaa. 
Mesophyl crystals are absent. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Planchon et Collin (34); Vogl (44). 



BAY-LEAF. 

Numerous varieties of the laurel (Laiirus nohilis L., order LanracecB) 
are cultivated in Mediterranean countries. The leaves and fruit serve 
as spices; the fruit also yields a medicinal aromatic fat. 

The leaves (Fig. 536) arc short-petioled, lanceolate, at the margin 
faintly undulate, leathery, smooth, lustrous above, dull and of a lighter 



BAY-LEAF. TARRAGON. 



617 



color beneath. From the prominent midrib branch off 6 to 8 veins, form- 
ing loops near the margin. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The Epidermis (Fig. 538) on both sides 
bears a thick cuticle. The cells have thick, 
sinuous, porous walls. Stomata are numerous 
on the lower epidermis, but do not occur on 
the upper. They are mostly sunken below 
the surface, and are surrounded by 4 to 5 
cells. 

Mesophyl. In cross section (Fig. 537) the 
oil cells of the mesophyl are conspicuous. 
These are globular (30-40 /<), and often con- 
tain a drop of essential oil. Characteristic 
also are the collenchyma cells accompanying 
the bundles, which, hke columns, hold the two 
epidermal layers apart. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 



See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Moeller 
(3i» 32); Planchon et Collin (34); Vogl (44, 45). 



Fig. 536. Bay-leaf (Laurus 
nobili s) . Natural size. 
(Moeller.) 



TARRAGON. 

This herb (Artemisia Dracunculus L., order Compositce), a native of 
Asia, is much grown in England and on the Continent. It is used fresh 
as a pot herb and for making tarragon vinegar. 



^^^- 537- Bay-leaf. Cross section, sliglitly magnified. (Moeller.) 

The leaves (Fig. 539) are mostly linear lanceolate, entire, not petioled, 
thick, smooth, with indistinct venation. 



6i8 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 
HISTOLOGY. 



Epidermis (Fig. 540). Both surfaces have the same structure. The 
young leaves bear short-stalked muhicellular glands; the mature leaves 




Fig. 53S. Bay-leaf. Lower epidermis in surface view. (MoELLER.j 



« 




Fig. 539. Tarragon {Artemisia Fig. 540. Tarragon. Epidermis of leaf in surface view, 
Dracunculus). Leaf, natural (Moeller.) 

size. (Moeller.) 

are smooth. The cells are isodiametric with sinuous walls, or elongated 
with straight walls. Three or more adjacent cells surround each stoma. 



TARRAGON. U/ORMIVOOD. 



619 



Mesophyl crystals arc absent. 

Other species of Artemisia are downy-hairy. Each hair is T-shaped, 
bearing on a short, jointed stalk a long transversely arranged end cell. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 



See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Koch (22); Moeller (30, 31); Planchon 
et Collin (34); Tschirch (39); Vogl (44). 
Meyer, Ad.: Off. Blatter u. Krauter. Halle, 1882. 



WORMWOOD. 

The European wormwood {Artemisia vulgaris L., order Compositce) 
has pinnately-cleft leaves with irregular, deeply lobed, dentate divisions 
(Fig. 541). They are dark green above, white or gray, woolly-hairy 




Fig. 541. Wormwood {Artemisia vulgaris). Leaf, natural size. (Moeller.) 

beneath. In the region of the flowers the leaves are entire. The divi- 
sions are lanceolate, prickle-pointed, sparingly veined. 



620 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



HISTOLOGY. 



The Epidermis (Fig. 542) on both sides consists of cells with wavy I 




Fig. 542. Wormwood. Epidermis of leaf with hairs. (Moeller.) 




Fig. 543. Sorrel {Rumcx sciitatus). Leaf, natural size. (Mofller.) 

walls, stomata (most abundant beneath), and remarkable T-shaped hairS 



IVORMIVOOD. SORREL. 



621 



made up of a 3-4 celled stalk and a long (up to 400 /i) transversely 
arranged, thin-walled, often collapsed end cell. Glands with several 
tiers of cells occur sparingly. 



See Tarragon, p. 619. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 



SORREL. 



French sorrel {Rumex sen talus L., order Polygonacecp) is a native of 
central and southern Europe, where it is also cultivated. 

The palmately- veined leaves (Fig. 543) 
are long-petioled, rounded-cordate or rounded- 
hastate, with a broad upper lobe and two 
smaller lobes at the base. They are rather 
thick, smooth, hoary sea-green, reddish below. 

Epidermis (Fig. 544). The cells on both 





Fig. 544. Sorrel. Epidermis of leaf in surface view. Fig, 545. Sorrel {Rumex A cetosa). 
(MoELLER.) Leaf, natural size. (Moeller.) 

surfaces are large, with thin, wavy walls. Usually three cells adjoin 
each stoma. 

The Mesophyl contains oxalate rosettes. 



622 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



The leaves of Rumex acetosa L, are long-petiolcd, saggitotc, dark 
green, smooth, or (beneath) hairy (Fig. 545). 

The Epidermis (Fig. 546) is much hke that of the preceding species, 




Fig. 546. Sorrel, Epidermis of leaf in surface view. (Moeller.) 

but it bears 4-celled glands with short stalks, also, along the veins, peculiar 
papillae with striated cuticle. 

Herb Patience (Rumex patientia L.), a European pot herb, has large, 
petioled, oblong or ovate-lanceolate, smooth leaves, with rounded or cor- 
date base and wavy margin. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Planchon et Collin (34); Villiers et Collin 
(42). 



FLOWERS. 

The most important products of this class are flower buds (cloves, 
capers, cassia buds) and stigmas (saffron). Several flowers are used as 
adulterants of saffron. Cassia buds are described for convenience after 
cassia bark on p. 591. 

The general structure of llowers is discussed on p. 30. 



SAFFRON. 



623 



SAFFRON. 



Genuine saffron is the dried stigmas of a small bulbous plant {Crocus 
saiivus L., order Iridacece) indigenous to Greece and Asia Minor. ^ In 
early times the plant was introduced into Italy, from whence it was dis- 
tributed over central and western Europe as far as England. At present 
it is grown chiefly in Spain, France, Egypt, Persia, and India. Its cul- 
ture, although profitable, requires a large outlay of labor in gathering 
the flowers, which appear during October, and are picked from day 
to day by hand. The flower consists of a light-colored tube about 10 cm. 
long and 2-3 cm. broad, which expands at the top and divides into 
six beautiful violet lobes, corresponding to petals and sepals. A mem- 
branous spathe surrounds the tube. The slender yellow style (Fig. 547) 





Fig. 547. Saffron {Crocus sutivus). Style 
and stigmas. (Planchon.) 



Fig. 54S. Spring Crocus {Crocus versus). 
Style and stigmas. (Planchon.) 



divides in the crown of the flower into three fleshy, lustrous, re volute, 
trumpet-shaped, bright orange-red stigmas, 2-3 cm. long, with scolloped 
edges. 



* This species should not be confounded with Crocus vernus L., numerous varieties of 
which are cultivated for their spring flowers. The stigmas (Fig. 548) of this species have 
neither odor nor taste and but little tinctorial power. 



624 SPICES ^hlD CONDIMENTS. 

In the preparation of commercial saffron the stigmas are separated 
as completely as possible from the styles, and dried in sieves over fires. 
The product is characterized by its intense orange-red color, penetrating 
odor, and peculiar taste. 

HISTOLOGY. 

After soaking in water, which extracts the larger part of the coloring 
matter, the form and structure of the stigmas may be studied. The walls 
of the stigma, although very soft and scarcely more than 0.4 mm. thick, 
may be held between pieces of pith and sectioned with a razor. 

The structure is very simple (Fig. 549). The ground tissue con- 



FiG. 549. Saffron. Cross section of stigma at margin, ep epidermis; g fibro-vascular 
bundle; c separated cuticle; P pollen grain. (Moeller.) 

sists of delicate, loosely arranged parenchyma with a few small bundles, 
between two epidermal layers. Seen in surface view all the cells are 
elongated up to 200 /i long and 15 // broad. 

Outer Epidermis (Fig. 550, ep; Fig. 551). The cuticle is glassy, stri- 
ated, much stiffer than the cell-walls. The cells are more or less elongated, 
and each usually bears a short papilla (p). These papilla on the edges 
of the stigma, where they are especially numerous, are both short and 
long (up to 400 /t), 20-40 /t broad. On the surface both cells and papillae 
are finely granular. 

The coloring matter, which is found in all the cells, is fiery red, or 
in thin sections, yellow. It is insoluble in oil, but dissolves in water and 
alkalies to a yellow solution, leaving undissolved only a colorless crumbling 
substance and an occasional oil drop. In glycerine and alcohol it dis- 
solves more slowly. The cell-contents form with concentrated sulphuric 
acid a blue solution, changing through violet and red into brown. After 



SAFFRON. 625 

this treatment fine needles, insoluble in water, separate. Rudolf Miiller 
notes that oxalate crystals are absent, but here and there crystals insoluble 
in hydrochloric acid are present. 

Pollen Grains (Fig. 549, P) arc often found on the stigmas. They are 
globular, 120 a in diameter, and have a thick membrane and colorless 
granular contents. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Saffron is not in such demand as formerly, either as a spice, a drug, 
or a dyestuff. Although its color is intense, one part imparting a dis- 
tinct yellow to 200,000 parts of water, the coal-tar colors have largely 
replaced it as a d3'c. 

Whole Saffron, the form in which the product is usually placed on 
the market, is readily identified by the macroscopic characters and the 







.t ^ 




IsP 



ii:^i,.liiJ-- 



FiG. 550. Saffron. Surface view of stigma, ep epidermis; g spiral vessel; p papillae. 

X300. (MOELLER.) 

reactions of the coloring matter, especially its solubility in water, and 
the blue color imparted by sulphuric acid. 

The chief microscopic characters are the elongated parenchyma cells 
of the epidermis and ground tissue, the former with papillae (Figs. 
550 and 551), and the smooth globular pollen grains (Fig. 549, P). 

Powdered Saffron is seldom found on the market. The reactions of 
the coloring matter and the histological characters as given above serve 
in identification. 



626 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



Adulterants. Owing to its high cost saffron is often grossly adulterated. 
The adulterations are chiefly of five classes : 

(i) Saffron Styles, being yellow, are strikingly different from the 
orange-red stigmas. If, however, the product is artificially colored, 
it must be soaked in water, after which the cylindrical styles may be 
readily distinguished from the trumpet-shaped stigmas. In powder form 
it is difficult to detect this form of adulteration, owing to the similarity 
in structure of the two parts. Papillae such as are present on the edges 
of the stigma are not found on the style, but failure to find them is no 




Fig. 551. Saffron. Epidermis of stigma with papilhi'. (Moeller.) 



proof of adulteration, since they form but a small portion of the tissues, 
and are not readily found in the debris. Of greater value in diagnosis 
are the epidermal cells, which in the style are wavy, and lack papillae 
(Vogl). If in oil mounts one finds a considerable amount of homoge- 
neous yellow parenchyma, either styles or extracted stigmas are probably 
present. 

(2) Parts of Foreign Plants. The most common adulterants of this 
class are marigold flowers (p. 627), safllower (p. 629), maize silk (p. 632), 
red sandalwood (p. 44), and paprika (p. 516). Others occasionally 
used are : Flowers of Scolymus hispanicus, flowers of pomegranate {Punka 
granatum L.), stigmas and stamens of other species of Crocus, chopped 



SAFFRON. MARIGOLD FLOIVERS. 627 

grass leaves colored with cochineal and weighted with limc,i leaves colored 
with carmine and weighted with heavy spar,2 rootlets of chives {Alliiim 
Schoeno prasum L.),^ petals of peony (Paonia),^ petals of poppy (Papaver 
RhceasL,.), garlic rootlets, onion scales, malt sprouts, the etiolated sprouts 
of vetches, an alga,^ etc. . 

(3) Artificially Colored Saffron. The exhausted product is sometimes 
colored with coal-tar dyes. These do not penetrate into the cells, but 
are deposited on the surface. The material should be examined in water 
and in oil, and the extracted dye subjected to chemical tests. 

(4) Weighted Saffron is prepared by soaking in oil, glycerine, sirup, 
or gelatine, and stirring with mineral substances. Saffron is also said 
to be soaked in a solution of a barium salt and afterwards in a solution 
of a sulphate, thus depositing barium sulphate in the cells. These adul- 
terants are detected by determinations of ash and analyses of the ash. 

(5) Coal'tar Dyes with no vegetable matter whatever are substi- 
tuted for genuine saffron. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hanausek, T. F. (10, 16); Linsbauer 
(48); Mace (26); Meyer (27); Moeller (29, 30, 31, 32); Planchon et Collin (34); 
Schimper (37); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Vogl (43, 45). 

CmcOTE: Une novelle falsification du safran. Jour, pharm. chim. 1896, 3, 116. 
Hanausek, T. F.: Safranfalschung. Rev. internat. sclent, et popul. 1887, 1, 24. 
Hanausf.k, T. F.: Ueber eine neue Safranfalschung. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 

1888, 2, 19. 
Kaiser: Ueber Safranfalschung. Fiinfte Versammlung der freien Vereinigung, 

bayer. Vertr. der angew. Chemie. 
Kirkby: Saffron adulteration. Pharm. Jour. Transact. 337. 
MuLLER, R.: Ueber die vermeintlichen Oxalatkristalle im Safran. Ztschr. allgem. 

osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1903. 
Nestler: Eigentiimhche Kristalle auf den Safrannarben. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.- 

Genussm. 1903, (5, 1034. 
Ranvez: Falschung von Safran. Ann. Pharm. 1895. 

HARIGOLD FLOWERS. 

The tasteless and odorless ray-flowers of the marigold {Calendula 
officinalis L., order Compositce), often artificially colored, serve as an 
adulterant of saffron. The ovary is small, spindle-shaped; the strap- 
shaped corolla, orange-colored, 4- veined, 3-toothed, upward of 2^ mm. 
long, contracted into a channeled hairy base. 

' W. Brandes. ^ ^_ Meyer. ^ Gehe. * Jandous. ^ Kanoldt. 



628 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



HISTOLOGY. 

Corolla. The thin blades may be mounted directly in water. 
Epidermis (Fig. 552). The cells are elongated, finely striate, arranged 
end to end in rows. Each contains one or more drops of fatty oil, in 




Fig. 552. Marigold (Calendula officinalis). Surface view of petal showing ep epidermis 
with h hairs and p parenchyma with oil globules. Xi6o. (Moeller.) 

which is dissolved a yellow dye. The numerous hairs (//) on the channeled 
base are over i mm. long, and usually consist of two parallel rows of cells, 
the end cells being often deep yellow and shrunken. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Although the dried product somewhat resembles saffron, on soaking 
in water the difference in microscopic structure is striking. The strap- 
shaped, 4-veined, 3-toothcd corolla narrowed into a channeled hairj^ 
base is characteristic. In the ground product the long hairs (Fig. 552, h), 
made up usually of two rows of cells, are readily identified. Water 
extracts onlv a trace of color from the uncolorcd flowers. 



S/IFFLOIVER. 



629 



SAFFLOWER. 

The orange-red flowers of Carthamus tinctorius L. (order Composilce), 
known as saffiower, are obtained from India and the Levant. Before 
marketing they are usually washed to remove the yellow coloring matter, 
pressed in the hands, and finally dried. The commercial product has 
little odor or taste. 

The red corolla consists of a slender tube over 2 cm. long, ending in 
five lanceolate lobes (Fig. 553). The yellow anthers are united into a 
tube 5 mm. long, projecting beyond the corolla, and out of this in turn 





Fig. 553. Safflower (Carthamus tincto- 
rius). P corolla; A anthers; N stig- 
ma; fk ovary. Enlarged. (Tschirch 
and Oesterle.) 



Fig. 554. Safflower. Cross section through 
the margin of petal. G fiibro-vascular 
bundle; .y resin tube. (Tschirch and 
Oesterle.) 



projects the club-shaped red stigma. The corolla tube is united below 
with the pistil. Narrow, white, silky bractlets of the receptacle are often, 
present with the flowers. 

HISTOLOGY. 

The Corolla (Figs. 554 and 555) is much thinner than the stigmas of 
saffron, and of a deeper color. 

Epidermis (ep). The cells are elongated, more or less wavy in con- 
tour. Papillae (p) similar to those of saffron are limited to the ends of 
the lobes. 

The Middle Layers consist of elongated cells, uncommonly narrow 
spiral vessels, and, accompanying the latter, tubes containing a dark- 



630 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



brown resin-like material, often in detached cylindrical masses (s). In 
the smaller tubes the interstices between these masses might be mis- 
taken for crystals. 

The Stamens (Fig. 556) are still more characteristic in structure. 
They consist of fibrous cells, many of which are beautifully reticulated 





Fig. 555. SafiSower. Tissues of petal FiG. 556. SafiElower. Tissues of stamen in 

in surface view, ep epidermis with surface view. / reticulated and porous fibers. 

p papillae; sp spiral vessels; s resin X300. (Moeller.) 
tubes. X 300. (Moeller.) 

or else pierced with numerous, uncommonly broad pores. At the place 
where the filaments join the anthers the cells are isodiametric. Short 
papillae occur on the ends of the anthers. 

Stigmas (Fig. 557). The numerous thin-walled papillae are very 
striking. The Pollen Grains (p) which are often found on the stigma 
are triangular, roughened, 40-60 /<, with three excrescences. 

The Bracts (Fig. 558) are made up of long (up to 500 /jl), narrow 
(20 /«), parenchymatous cells with reticulated end walls. 

The coloring matter exists in the cells as a red, homogeneous or 
indistinctly granular mass, insoluble in both water and oil. Alkalies 
turn it yellow. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Safflower is used in medicine, and occasionally as an adulterant of 
saffron. Microscopic examination of the soaked material suffices for the 



SAFFLOIVER. CAPE SAFFRON. 



631 



identification of the whole flowers. The characters of chief value in 
the examination of the powder are the wavy-walled epidermal cells (Fig, 



P ^, 





Fig. 557. Safflower. Stigma and /> pol- 
len grains. X 300. (Moeller.) 



qu—Y 



Fig. 558. Safflower. Bract in surface 
view. X300. (Moeller.) 



555, ep) and the resin tubes {s) of the red corolla, the elongated reticu- 
lated cells of the filaments and bracts (Fig. 558), the papillae of the stigmas 
(Fig. 557), and the roughened triangular pollen grains (Fig. 557, p) each 
with three excrescences. The product imparts little color to water. 

CAPE SAFFRON. 



The flowers of Lyperia crocea Eckl- (order ScrophulariacecB), known 
in commerce as Cape safi"ron, resemble true saffron in odor, taste, and 
dyeing properites, although the two plants belong to widely different 
families. The calyx is greenish, somewhat inflated, with five linear 
lobes; the corolla is superior, fugaceous, 25 mm. long, with a long tube, 
and five spreading, rounded, somewhat revolute lobes. Two short and 
two long stamens are inserted on the corolla tube. Distributed over 
the corolla and calyx are large, regularly formed glandular scales, con- 
sisting of four cells with a blister-like enlargement of the cuticle. The 
contents are a colorless substance soluble in alcohol and alkali. The 
color of the dried flowers is dark brown, becoming lighter on soaking 
in water (Vogl). 



632 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



SOUTH AFRICAN SAFFRON. 

The flowers of Tritonia aurea Pappc (Crocosma aurea PI., Babiana 
aurea Ketsch., order Iridacecs) are used in South Africa as a substitute 
for saffron. The corolla tube is cylindrical, broadening into a funnel- 
shaped lobcd extremity. The stigma branches are thick, club-shaped 
at the ends. According to Heine the flowers contain a coloring sub- 
stance soluble in hot water which is similar to the crocin of saffron. 

HAIZE SILK. 

The dried thread-like styles and stigmas of Zea Mays L., known as 
maize or corn silk, are used in medicine and chopped into short pieces 
as an adulterant of saffron. The threads are distinguished from saffron 
by their flattened, strap-shaped form. Under a low power two parallel 
bundles, one near each margin, are evident. Multicellular hairs similar 
to those of marigold, but smaller (0.4-0.8 mm.), occur on the epidermis. 
The cell contents dissolve in alkali to a brown liquid. 



CLOVES. 

Cloves are the flower-buds of a small evergreen tree (Eugenia caryo- 
phyllata Thbg., Jamhosa Caryophyllus Ndz., Caryophyllus aromaticus 




^B ^ ILJ ^ 

Fio. 559. Cloves {Eugenia caryo<pliyllata). A flower bud in longitudinal seccion, A3 
B fruit, natural size. C fruit in longitudinal section, X2. D embryo, natural 

size. (LUERSSEN.) 

L., order MyrtacecB), a native of the Molucca Islands, but now exten- 
sively cultivated in the Philippines, the Sunda Islands, Southern India, 



CLONES. 



^ZZ 



Zanzibar and the neighboring islands, the Antilles, and tropical South 
America. The thrice-forked corymbs, with flowers in groups of three, 
appear twice a year, in June and December. The buds are either picked 
by hand or beaten from the tree with reeds and collected on cloths beneath. 
They are usually dried in the sun, during which process the color changes 
to brown. 

Dried cloves (Fig. 559) have a rounded or somewhat flattened, wrinkled, 
adherent calyx tube, about i cm. long and 3 mm. in diameter, which 
expands somewhat at the end, and divides into four thick, blunt lobes. 
In the calyx tube towards the top are two small cavities containing numicr- 




FiG. 560. Cloves. Cross section through calyx tuLc. X25. (Moeller.) 

ous ovules. The four petals alternate with the sepals, and overlap to 
form a globular head, within which are numerous curved stamens about 
a single style. 

Cloves contain 15-25 per cent of essential oil, which exudes in minute 
drops on pressing with the finger nail. 



HISTOLOGY. 



Calyx. A cross section of the calyx tube shghtly magnified (Fig. 560) 
shows an outer ring of oil cavities, an inner ring of bundles, and a slender 



634 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



axis. The structure seen with higher magnification (Fig. 561) is as 
follows : 

1. Epidermis (ep). The wrinkled epidermis consists of very small 
cells with uncommonly thick cuticle (15 /«). In surface view (Fig. 563, A) 
the cells are sharply polygonal. Stomata occur here and there. 

2. Parenchyma. In the outer layers {p 1) the cells are somewhat 
radially elongated, with thin walls. Proceeding inwards the cells become 
isodiametric and the walls increase in thickness (p 2). Yellow masses 




Fig. 561. Cloves. Cross section through calyx tube. e/> epidermis withe cuticle; p],p2,p3 
three forms of parenchyma; t> oil cavity; g fibro- vascular bundle with narrow spiral 
vessel and thick-walled bast fibers. Xi6o. (Moeller.) 

becoming blue-black with iron chloride are the visible contents. The 
oil cavities are in 2 to 3 irregular rows, and, being commonly over 200 /< 
in diameter, are visible to the naked eye. 

3. The Bundles (Fig. 561, g; Fig. 562) contain very small spiral vessels 
arranged in radial rows, and a few strikingly broad bast fibers (50 p.). 
These latter are the only sclerenchyma elements in cloves. Numerous 
rosettes of calcium oxalate occur in crystal fibers in the bundles and in 
small groups elsewhere. 



CLOVES. 



635 



4. Spongy Parenchyma (ps). Chains of small parenchyma cells 
about large intercellular spaces form a ring inside the bundle ring. 

The calyx lobes are composed of much the same elements as the tube. 

The Corolla is similar in structure to the calyx. The epidermal 
cells of the outer surface (Fig. 563, B) are isodiametric, with wavy walls; 
those of the inner surface (C) isodiametric or 
tlongated, with straight or curved walls. A 
concentric arrangement of the latter about grow- 
ing centers is here and there evident. Large 
oil cavities form a layer near the outer surface, 
while smaller ones adjoin the inner surface 
(Fig. 563, C). The bundles are narrow (50 //). 

The Stamens and Styles contain elements 
much like those described, but more delicate. 

The Pollen Grains (Fig. 564) occur in great 
numbers in the anthers. They are rounded- 
triangular, and have distinct pores in the blunt 
corners. 




Fig. 562. 

tudinal 



DIAGNOSIS. 

Whole Cloves should contain the full amount 
of essential oil and be free from dirt and con- 
siderable amounts of stems. When pressed with 
the finger nail small drops of oil should exude, 
the cleaned cloves indicates either that the product has lost strength 
St A 



Cloves. Longi- 
section through 
fibro-vascular bundle, sp 
spiral vessel; h bast fiber 
with broad cavity; cr crys- 
tal fibers. (MoELLER.) 



A deficiency of oil in 





.^^^VMWr^^yQ^ 




Fio. 563. Cloves. Epidermal tissues from various parts. A from cal}x lubc; B from 
outer surface of petal; C from inner surface of petal with underlying oil cavity and 
crj'Stal rosettes. X 160. (Moeller.) 

by long exposure, or that exhausted cloves, the by-product from the dis- 
tillation of oil of cloves, have been added. T. F. Hanausek describes 
artificial cloves made from dough, powdered bark, and clove powder, 



6s(> SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



I 




and Kocnig another moulded product made from starch, gum, and oil 
of cloves. Such products disintegrate on soaking in water. 

Ground Cloves. The chief elements are the blunt triangular pollen 
grains (Fig. 564), the epidermal layers (Fig. 563)^ 
the bundles (Fig. 562) with crystal chamber 
fibers {cr), and the thick- walled bast fibers {h). 
Molisch calls attention to the needle crystals of 
an eugenol salt often found after treating with 
alkali. Starch is absent, also stone cells. 
Fig. 564. Cloves. Pollen The adulterants include clove stems (yellow 
lee")^' ^^ ^^^^ ' *^^^" stone cells, reticulated vessels, small starch grains, 
cork), cocoanut shells (brown stone cells of curi- 
ous forms), red sandalwood (wood elements with red color, soluble in 
alkali), also various starchy and non-starchy products. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Hanausek, T. F. (10, 16); 
Hassall (19); Hilger (10); Leach (25); Linsbauer (48); Mace (26); Meyer, A.. 
(27); Moeller (29, 30, 31, 32); Planchon et CoUin (34); Schimper (37); Tschirch u. 
Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (43, 45). 

Hanausek, T. F.: Kiinstliche Gewiirznelken. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1889, 3. 
Kraemer; a Chemical and Microscopical E.xamination of Cloves. Am. J. Phar. 
1894, 66, 479. 

CLOVE STEflS. 

Clove stems, the pedicels removed from the flower-buds in harvesting, 
are used for the manufacture of oil of cloves and as an adulterant of 
ground cloves and allspice. They vary in diameter (1-4 mm.) accord- 
ing as they are stems of the first, second, or third grade, and have a 
smooth yellow or wrinkled brown surface. The product contains about 
5 per cent of essential oil. 

HISTOLOGY. 

1. The Epidermis, like that of the calyx tube, consists of polygonal 
cells and stomata. Sometimes the epidermis is replaced by small cork 

cells. 

2. Cortex. The ground tissue is parenchyma containing a brown sub- 
stance partly soluble in water and alkah, with the reactions of tannin, 
small starch grains (3-5 /i), and rosettes and simple crystals of calcium 
oxalate. Oil cavities occur beneath the epidermis, and yellow stone 



CLO^E STEMS. CLOI^E FRUIT. 



637 



cells (Fig. 565, st) both there and in the inner layers. The stone cells 
in the outer layers are small, thickened only on the inner side; those 
further inward are large (up to i mm.), tangentially elongated, uniformly 
thickened, faintly stratified, pierced by branching pores. 

3. The Bundles consist of narrow (25 /i) reticulated and scalariform 
vessels (Fig. 565, g) with phloem and bast fibers on both the outer and 




Fig. 565. Clove Stems, st stone cells from cortex; m star-shaped stone cell from pith; 
g fibro-vascular bundle; b bast fibers and stone cells from bast. Xi6o. (Moeller.) 

inner sides. The bast fibers (b) arc 700 /« long, 45 /.i or less broad, with 
very narrow lumen and few pores. 

4. Pilk. The parenchyma contains small starch grains and oxalate 
crystals like those of the cortex. Regularly formed stone cells, often 
star-shaped (m), are also present. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The most important elements are the yellow stone cells (Fig. 565, st, 
m) and the reticulated and scalariform vessels {g). Less noticeable are 
starch grains, simple crystals, and cork cells. None of these elements 
occur in the flower-buds. 



CLOVE FRUIT. 

Mother cloves, the fully ripened fruit of the clove tree, are employed 
in limited amount in the manufacture of medicines and hquors. 

Although the ovary in its early stages of development has two cells 



638 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



and numerous ovules, only one cell and one seed arc found in the ripe 
fruit (Fig. 559, C). The latter is but a swollen and ripened clove, 25 mm. 
long, 8 mm. thick, crowned with the incurved calyx teeth and the remains 
of the style, but lacking the corolla and stamens. 

The seed fills the fruit cavity completely and resembles a small date 
stone. 



HISTOLOGY. 



The Pericarp is not materially altered in structure during ripenino- 
except that sclerenchyma elements (Fig. 566, st) are developed about 




Fig. 566. Clove Fruit. Tissues of pericarp in surface view, sp spiral vessels and epicarp; 
p brown parenchyma with underlying oil cavity; st stone cells and fibers; 5 endocarp. 

X 160. (MOELLER.) 

the bundles. These vary from bast fibers 800 11 long to isodiametric 
stone cells, and display a great variety of curious knotty forms. They 
are easily prepared for study by crushing a piece of the soaked peri- 
carp on a slide and treating with a drop of alkali. 

The Embryo (Fig. 567) consists of two dark red-brown, wrinkled 
cotyledons on a radicle upward of i cm. long. The outer surface of 
the cotyledons is finely granular. 

1. Epidermis (ep). A layer of small cells (12 //) makes up the epi- 
dermal layer. 

2. Oil Cells (200 p. or less), containing essential oil and a brown 
pigment, are distributed in the subepidermal layers of ground parenchyma. 

3. Starch Cells of large size (45 //) and rounded form, with thick 
porous walls and intercellular spaces, resemble in their cell-structure the 



CLOyE FRUIT. CAPERS. 639 

cotyledon tissues of some of the leguminous seeds, though the starch grains 
{am) are very different, being pear-shaped or truncated with a smaU 
hilum at the broader end and delicate markings. The starch grains 
are seldom more than 40 /i and quite as seldom less than 10 /z. Not- 
withstanding the truncated ends, suggesting contact with other grains, 
compound grains are not evident. Fissures occur in some of the grains. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

The pear-shaped starch grains (Fig, 567, am), knotty bast fibers, 
and stone cells (Fig. 566, st) are highly characteristic, the latter being 



am 




Fig. 567. Clove Fruit. Elements of seed, ep epidermis and E ground tissue of cotyledon; 
am starch grains. X300. (Moeller.) 

quite different from the sclerenchyma elements of cloves or clove stems. 
Banana, yam, sago, and some other tropical starches resemble that 
of mother cloves ; still these are seldom added to spices, and if present 
there is little fear of confusion, as the stone cells and other tissues of the 
latter are characteristic. 

CAPERS. 

Capers are the flower-buds of a shrub {Cap parts spinosa L., order 
CapparidacecB), a native of Mediterranean countries, where it is also 
extensively cultivated. The flowers have four green, thickish, tough 
sepals, inconspicuous delicate petals, numerous stamens, and a stalked 
ovary. They are preserved in vinegar and salt, and are much esteemed 
as a condiment. 

HISTOLOGY. 

Sepals. The Epidermis is characterized by the large cells with stri- 
ated cuticle (Fig. 568). In the Mesophyl are groups of cells containing 



640 



SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 



numerous yellow crystalline needles of a glucoside (rutin) embedded in 
formless masses. These dissolve in alkali to a yellow liquid. 

Petals. The epidermis consists of smaller cells than those of the 
sepals, and almost circular stomata. On the inner surface are curious 





Fig. 568. Capers (Capparis spinosa). Epidermis Fig. 569. Capers. Hairs from inner 
of calyx in surface view. (Moeller.) surface of petal. (Moeller.) 

club-shaped hairs (Fig. 569) with irregular constrictions. They are 
easily removed by scraping. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Preserved capers should be small, round, and uncxpanded. If old 
they are soft and discolored. A bright-green color indicates that they 
have been greened with copper. The following are adulterants: 

German Capers, the flower-buds of Spartium scoparium L. (Papilio- 
nacecB), are prepared in Holland. They have a two-lipped calyx, papiHo- 
naceous corolla, ten stamens in a bundle, and a coiled style. 

Flower-buds of Marsh Marigold (Caltha paluslris L. — Ranunculacea) 
have five yellow sepals, no petals, and 5-10 pistils. 

The flower-buds of the garden Nasturtium (TropcBolum majiis L. — 
TropcBolacecB) have a spurred clayx, five petals with claws, eight stamens 
and a three-celled ovar\\ The green fruit is irregularly trefoil-shaped 
and ribbed. Both buds and fruit are substituted for capers. 

Caper Fruits {Cornichons de caprier) are elongated, many-seeded 
berries. They are sometimes mixed with the buds. 



PART X. 

COMMERCIAL STARCHES. 



■1! 



COMMERCIAL STARCHES. 

Although starch is found in enormous quantities in leaves as the 
first visible product of assimilation (assimilation starch), no great amount 
accumulates in these organs, as it is continually being converted into 
sugars or other soluble carbohydrates and translocated to different parts 
of the plant to build up tissues and form cell-contents. For this reason 
as well as the small size of the grains and the difficulty of removing the 
enveloping chlorophyl, the starch of leaves cannot be profitably extracted 
on a commercial scale. 

Transitory Starch, that is, starch temporarily deposited in growing 
points, barks, and immature fruits and seeds, like the starch of assimilation, 
has small grains and does not accumulate in considerable quantities. 

Reserve Starch. The only form of starch available for the manu- 
facture of the commercial product is the reserve supply stored up in 
roots, rhizomes, tubers, and stems for the needs of the plants themselves 
or else in fruits and seeds for the needs of the young offspring. The 
reserve starch of the cassava plant (Manihot) and yam (Dioscorea) is stored 
in the fleshy roots, of Bermuda arrowroot (Maranta) and turmeric (Cur- 
cuma) in the rhizomes or rootstocks, of the potato (Solanum) in the tubers, 
of the sago palm (Metroxylon) in the stem, of the banana (Musa) in the 
pericarp or fruit. 

It is, however, questionable whether the starch of the banana should 
be classed under this head, for reasons given on p. 658. 

Among seeds, the reserve starch of the legumes {LeguminoscB) is stored 
in the cotyledons, of the cereals (Graminm) and buckwheats {Polygo- 
nacea) in the endosperm, and of pepper and cubebs (Piperacece) in the 
perisperm. By selection, crossing, and cultivation, the size of these 
natural storehouses as well as their starch content are greatly increased 
beyond what the needs of the plant demand. 

Formation of Reserve Starch. Schimper was the first to demonstrate 
that reserve starch does not separate directly from the protoplasm of the 

643 



644 



COMMERCUL STARCHES. 



cell, but is formed through the agency of starch-forming bodies (leuco- 
plasts), physiologically similar to chlorophyl grains (chloroplasts), but 
differing from them in that they perform their function in the dark. 
Closely related morphologically to both leucoplasts and chloroplasts are 
the chromoplasts or color bodies of flowers and fruits. 

Leucoplasts are not easily found in most reservoirs of starch, but 
may be studied in sections of the pseudo-bulb of PJiajus grandiflorus 




Fig. 570. Starch Grains and Leucoplasts from the pseudo-bulb of PAa/wj ^raM(f?^orws. A 
fully developed grains; a partially developed grains with L adhering leucoplasts; A' 
starch grain with layers deposited on one side; L' leucoplasts arranged about the cell 
nucleus in which are granular bodies. (Vogl.) 

(Fig. 570), a well-known greenhouse orchid, also in the rhizome of Iris 
Germanica. 

Arthur Meyer explains some interesting relations between the shape 
of the starch grains and the method of formation. If a single grain is 
formed within the leucoplast it will grow uniformly on all sides and 
have a round outline, a central hilum, and concentric rings. If, how- 
ever, the grain is formed on the sides of the leucoplast it will grow only 
on the side of attachment, and as a consequence wiU be elongated and 
have an excentric hilum and excentric rings. If several grains are formed 
within a leucoplast, the sides in contact will be flattened; the grains on 
the surface of the aggregate will have both rounded and flattened sur- 
faces, while those in the inner part, in contact wdth grains on all sides, 
will be polygonal. 



COMMERCIAL STARCHES. 645 

Chemical Composition. Although starch from different plants has 
the same percentage composition, the formula being CeHioOs, or some 
multiple, it is not one single substance. Three isomeric carbohydrates 
occurring in varying proportions have been described: (i) granulose 
or /3-amylose, colored blue with iodine; (2) starch cellulose or a-amylose, 
colored yellow with iodine, and (3) amylodextrine, colored red with 
iodine. True starch consists of granulose with a small amount of starch 
cellulose and is colored blue with iodine. The amylodextrine starch of 
mace, first described by Tschirch, contains, however, only small amounts 
of these substances, but consists largely of amylodextrine, and conse- 
quently is colored red by iodine. Starch cellulose is obtained as deli- 
cate skeletons by treating starch grains with saliva. 

Starch is converted into a paste by boiling with water. It passes 
successively into soluble starch, dextrine, and dextrose on boiling with 
dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid. The diastase of malt and the ptyalin 
of saliva convert it into maltose. By heating at 150-160° C. it is con- 
verted into dextrine. It is soluble in caustic soda or potash, and for 
this reason these alkalies are used to clear starchy mounts for the obser- 
vation of the tissues. 

The Microscopic Characters of starch differ greatly in the different 
varieties, especially as to the presence or absence of aggregates, the form 
and size of the grains, their deportment with polarized light, the form, 
position, distinctness of the hilum or nucleus, the form and distinct- 
ness of the rings (Fig. 571). 

Aggregates. The grains may be separate or more or less united into 
aggregates which may consist of any number of individuals from two to 
several hundred. In the mature organ, the aggregates may be either intact 
or largely broken up into their component grains. 

The Forms of the grains are so numerous even in the same variety as 
to forbid accurate classification, but the following are the most striking: 

1. Globular. The starch of the peanut and some grains of maize. 

2. Lenticular. The large grains of wheat, rye, and barley. 

3. Ellipsoidal. The starch of legumes. 

4. Ovoid or pear-shaped. The starch of potato, canna, Bermuda 
arrowroot, yam, and banana. 

5. Truncated. Most of the grains of cassava, batata, and sago. 

6. Polygonal. The starch of maize, rice, oats, and buckwheat. 
Globular and lenticular grains ordinarily appear the same, but if, 

as recommended by Tschirch and Oesterle, the grains are made to move 



646 



COMMERCI/fL ST/tRCHES. 



under the cover-glass by drawing the liquid to one side by means of a 
bit of filter-paper, lenticular grains alternately appear circular or elliptical 
according as their position. When viewed on edge, lenticular grains 
are very similar in appearance to elhpsoidal grains. Pear-shaped grains 
differ greatly, often passing into globular, rod-shaped, sickle-shaped, 
and various irregular forms. 

The term truncated grain as here used includes not only kettledrum 
forms but forms with two or even three plain surfaces; when, however, 




Fig. i^yi. Forms of Starch Grains, i wheat; 2 pea; 3 curcuma; 4 potato; 5 sago; 6 oats; 
jColchiciim; 8 cockle; ()a Euphorbia resiuijera; qh Euphorbia Helioscopia; 10 banana; 
II maize; 12 /m Ger)»a«fca (with adhering leucoplasts).. X300. (Vogl.) 

several plain surfaces are present, the form is more nearly polygonal. 
Truncated forms with one and two plain surfaces are separated members 
of twins and triplets, while polygonal grains are the inner members of 
larger aggregates. 

The Size of starch grains, measured through the longest diameter, 
ranges from less than i /< to over 150 [i. In some varieties the grains 
are nearly all large (canna), in others all small (rice, buckwheat), in 
others still, large and small (wheat, r}'e, and barley). Not only should 



COMMERCIAL STARCHES. 647 

the maximum and minimum sizes be noted, but also the commonest 
(not the average) size. 

The Hilum or organic center of the grain is conspicuous in some 
grains (maize, legumes), hardly noticeable in others (wheat, rye, and 
barley). It may be isodiametric (in most cases a mere point, in maize, 
however, of considerable size) or else strongly elongated, appearing like 
a narrow cleft (legumes). 

Of great importance is its position, which may be central or nearly 
so (cereals, cassava), or else excentric, (potato, Bermuda arrowroot, 
turmeric, canna). The rings of the grain are circular or excentric, 
according to the location of the hilum about which they are arranged. 

Polarized light is of great value in locating the position of the hilum, 
since the dark crosses which appear on the bright grains with crossed 
Nicol prisms, intersect at that point (Fig. 572). In grains with central 




Fig. 572. Starch Grains viewed with Polarized Light. T potato. II curcuma. /// 
wheat; /F bean. X300. (Winton.) 

hilum, the dark lines intersect at the center, forming X-shaped crosses. 
In grains with excentric hilum they often intersect so near one end 
that they appear to be V-shaped. The crosses in leguminous grains 

(if they can be so termed) are the shape of two Y's, united thus : Y* 

Since the hilum contains more water than other parts of the grain, 
clefts appear on drying, which in the cereals radiate from the center, 
in legumes form branches on both sides of the elongated hilum, and in 
Bermuda arrowroot form double curves resembhng the wings of a soar- 
ing bird. 



648 COMMERCIAL STARCHES. 

The Rings vary greatly in distinctness. They are best seen with 
oblique illumination, and may be rendered more distinct by treatment 
with dilute chromic acid, as recommended by Weiss and Wiesner, or 
by heating the dry starch. They are not evident in wheat, rye, or barley 
starch except under favorable conditions. 

As has been stated, they are circular or excentric according to the 
location of the hilum. Some authorities regard these rings as due to 
differences in water content of alternate layers, the hilum containing 
the highest percentage. 

The Crystalline Structure of starch grains is shown by their deport- 
ment with polarized light. Viewed with crossed Nicol prisms, the 
grains form in the dark field luminous objects with more or less distinct 
crosses. These crosses are very distinct in some varieties (canna, potato, 
maize), indistinct in others (wheat, rye, barley). 

If the selenite plate is added to the polarizing apparatus, a beautiful 
play of colors is obtained in many varieties. 

Various theories have been advanced as to the crystalline structure 
of the grains, but at present they are regarded as double refractive sphaero- 
crystals or sphaerocrystalloids. 

Certain Enzymes, particularly those of sprouting grain, act slowly 
on starch grains, the partially dissolved grains showing very distinct 
rings and branching grooves resembling the burrows of insects (Fig. 30). 

Heating, whether dry as in the manufacture of dextrine and the roast- 
ing of seeds for coffee substitutes, or wet as in the baking of bread, causes 
the grains to swell and assume greatly distorted forms. Notwithstanding 
this distortion, a considerable number of the grains usually preserve 
enough of their characteristics to permit of identification (Fig. 31). 

Commerical Starch. Wiesner describes twenty distinct starches 
which are made on a commercial scale, but at least half of these are 
of only local importance. 

Wheat and potato starch are mostly made on the Continent; rice 
starch in England; curcuma and sago starch in the East Indies; Ber- 
muda arrowroot in the West Indies and other warm regions; cassava 
starch in Brazil and other tropical countries; canna starch in Australia; 
and maize starch in the United States. 

Process 0} Manujacture. Starch differs from flour in that it is a product 
of elutriation rather than of milling, and consists almost entirely of one 
chemical substance, whereas flour contains proteids, fat, ceUular matter 
and ash constituents as well as starch. 



ANALYTICAL KEY. 649 

The processes employed for making different kinds of starch and in 
different factories for making the same kind of starch differ in details, 
but are in general principle the same. The starchy material is reduced 
to a pulp or powder, with or without previous soaking in water, and the 
starch washed out from the tissues on sieves. After settling the super- 
natant liquid is poured off and the residue is further purified by washing, 
and is finally dried. 

In making wheat starch either the whole grain is subjected to a fer- 
mentation process, thus forming acetic, lactic and other organic acids 
in which the gluten is soluble, or else wheat flour is made into a dough 
and the starch is washed away from the gluten on sieves. 

Agitation with dilute alkali is often employed in purifying starch, 
the nitrogenous substances and some other impurities being soluble 
in alkaline solutions. Thorough washing of the starch after this treat- 
ment is essential, otherwise the finished product is liable to have a slight 
alkaline reaction which unfits it for certain uses. 

Uses. Starch is used in preparing various articles of food, especially 
puddings and confectionery, also as an ingredient of baking-powders. 
Enormous quantities are used in the manufacture of glucose and alcoholic 
liquors. It is a common adulterant of wheat flour, chocolate, cocoa, 
spices, jelhes, and other foods. 

Starch is also employed in medicine, as a cosmetic, and still more 
extensively for laundry purposes and in the arts. Starch paste is a product 
of no Uttle commercial importance. 

Microscopic Examination. The technique of preparing starch for 
examination is exceedingly simple, and consists merely in mounting in a 
drop of water or other medium, taking care not to use too much of the 
material. Oblique illumination aids in making the rings distinct. The 
shape and size of the grains, the form and position of the hilum and rings, 
and the presence or absence of aggregates should all be carefully noted. 
The micropolariscope is of no little assistance not only in locating the 
hilum, but in differentiating strongly and feebly active starches. 



Moeller's Analytical Key to Commercial Starches. 

A. All or most of the grains rounded, not from aggregates. 

{a) Large grains, rounded, with central hilum; small grains globular or angular. 

I. Large grains, mostly 28-40 fx Wheat. 

{b) Large grains of various shapes (never lenticular), with excentric hilum. 
* Many grains over 70 jx long. 



650 COMMERCIAL STARCHES. 

2. Grains under 100 j«, mostly oyster-shell shaped; hilum in the narrow, 

pointed end; here and there aggregates and grains with two 
hilums • . . . Potato. 

3. Many grains over 100 11, broadly elliptical with a blunt point; hilum 

in the pointed end Canna. 

** Few grains over 70 n, much elongated. 
+ Many grains over 50 ,«; rings distinct. 

4. Grains with pointed end, uniform in size (50-60 /-«), flattened (seen 

on edge narrow^; hilum in pointed end Curcuma. 

5. Grains not pointed; hilum in the narrow but rounded end Yam. 

6. Grains not pointed; hilum in broad, seldom in narrow end. .Banana. 
+ + Grains always under 50 «, ovate or pear-shaped, not flattened or only 

slightly. 

7. Grains nearly uniform in size (40 /i); hilum central or in the broad 

end, often with cleft Maranta. 

8. Large grains 25-40 n, club-shaped; hilum in narrow rounded end; 

clefts absent Erythronium. 

+ + -F Grains under 30 ,«, mostly pear-shaped, seldom in aggregates; hilum 
and rings indistinct or lacking. 

9. Similar to sago, but grains smaller and without rings. Horse-chestnut. 

10. Many rounded angular grains Chestnut. 

B. Grains polygonal or rounded, with one or more facets (mostly from aggregates). 

(a) Grains mostly polygonal; hilum central. 

11. Grains very small (mostly 6 /<), sharply angular Rice. 

12. Large grains (often 20 [i), polygonal or rounded; hilum with clefts. 

Maize. 
(6) Grains mostly kettle-drum-shaped (from twins) or with two facets (from 
aggregates of three). 
* Aggregates of one large and two or more small grains. 

13. Large grains, often with two separated (not adjacent) facets; hilum 

excentric Sago. 

** Aggregates of equal-sized grains. 

14. Grains kettle-drum-shaped, seldom over 20 /<; hilum central; rings 

indistinct Cassava. 

15. Grains sugar-loaf-shaped, often up to 50 /<; hilum excentric; rings 

distinct • Sweet potato. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bell (i); Berg (3); Blyth (5); Greenish 
(14); Hassall (19); Mace (26); Moeller (29); Tschirch (12); Tschirch u. Oesterle 
(40); Villiers et Collin (42, 45); Weisner (49); Witmack (10). 
V. Hohnel: Die Starke und die Mahlproducte. Kassel u. Berlin, 1882. 



MAIZE STARCH. 651 

MAIZE STARCH. 

By far the larger part of the starch used in the United States is made 
from maize or Indian corn {Zea Mays). Maize starch is also coming 
into use in Europe. 

In manufacturing this product either the whole grain is ground with 
water and the milky liquid separated from the cellular matter on sieves 
or the germs and bran are first separated mechanically, and only the 
starchy endosperm is treated with water to remove the starch. The 
starch is allowed to settle from the milky hquid and is washed several 
times by decantation. In some factories it is agitated with very dilute 
caustic soda, sulphurous acid or other chemicals, to remove nitrogenous 
constituents, traces of fat and other impurities- 
Commercial starch, glucose, dextrines and other starch products 
are frequently made in the same factory, the process of separation of 
the starch from the grain being the same whatever the final product. 

Maize starch as found on the market is either in coarse granules or 
a fine powder. The so-called " cornstarch " used in making confec- 
tionery and deserts is purified maize starch in powder form. 

Adulteration with potato, cassava, and other starches is occasionally 
practiced. 

Microscopic Characters (Fig. 573). Maize starch is the only commer- 
cial variety with polygonal grains over 1 5 /i in diameter. Sorghum starch 




Fig. 573. Maize Starch. X300. (Moeller.) 



is hardly distinguishable from maize starch, but is not as yet prepared 
on a commercial scale. 

Aggregates. Several polygonal or irregularly rounded grains are 



652 COMMERCIAL STARCHES. 

often united, but round or oval aggregates, such as are characteristic 
of rice and oat starch, are not present. 

Forms. The grains from the horny endosperm are sharply polygonal 
and stand out in bold rehef. In the flour}- part of the kernel the grains 
are irregularly globular. 

Size. Both forms of grains range up to 30 /z in diameter, most of 
them being over 15 /t. Small grains occur in Hmited numbers. 

The Hilum is central and usually verj^ distinct. Radiating clefts are 
present in many of the grains. 

Rings are not evident. 

Polarization Crosses. The grains are ver\- brilhant with distinct 
crosses, but display no marked play of colors with the selenite plate. 



RICE STARCH. 

Rice starch is the most important starch in England, where it is made 
in large quantities from Indian paddy. It is also manufactured on the 
Continent, but not to such an extent as wheat and potato starch. 

Although rice {Oryza sativa) contains a larger percentage of starch 
than any of the other common cereals, this starch, Hke that of the horny 
endosperm of maize, cannot be separated mechanically until the pro- 
teid matter is removed. This is accompHshed commonly by soaking 
with very diulte alkali both before and after grinding, less often by 
treatment with sodium carbonate, hydrochloric acid or other chemicals, 
or by fermentation. 

The commercial product is of a pure white or yellowish color, accord- 
ing to its purity, and is either in lumps or in powder form. It is used in 
England chiefly for laundr}- purposes, as a cosmetic, and in the arts, other 
kinds being generally preferred for cuhnar)^ purposes. 

Microscopic Characters (Fig. 574). The small polygonal grains dis- 
tinguish this starch from the other common commercial varieties. 

Aggregates, consisting of from two to upwards of a hundred grains, 
occur in great numbers in the kernel, but are largely disintegrated in the 
process of manufacture. 

Forms. As the grains exist in the kernel chiefly in aggregates the 
isolated individuals are either polygonal (from the interior of aggregates) 
or else are rounded on some sides and flattened on others (from the sur- 
face of aggregates). Sharply polygonal grains predominate; spindle- 



RICE STARCH. IVHEAT STARCH. 653 

shaped forms such as occur in oat starch, or perfectly round grains, are 
seldom present. 




Fig. 574. Rice Starch. X300. (Moeller.) 

Size. The grains are 2-10 /.'- in diameter, but seldom reach the latter 
size. 

The Hiluni is central but is not always evident. 

Rifigs are not evident. 

Polarization Crosses. The grains are brilliant with distinct crosses. 
No play of color is evident with the selenite plate. 

WHEAT STARCH. 

On the Continent wheat and potatoes are the chief raw materials 
for the manufacture of starch. Wheat starch is made usually from com- 
mon wheat {Triticum sativum vulgare), although, according to Wiesner, 
spelt (T. sat. spelta) yields an especially fine product, and EngUsh wheat 
{T. sat. turgidum) gives a larger yield than common wheat. Macaroni 
wheat, because of its horny structure and high content of gluten, is entirely 
unsuited for starch manufacture, and other varieties and species, although 
occasionally employed, are of minor importance. 

The oldest process of separating the starch is to soak the whole or 
coarsely ground grain in water until soft, crush between rollers and 
remove the starch by water. The product obtained by this process has 
a gray color and contains more or less gluten. A purer product is obtained 
by subjecting the starchy liquid to a fermentation process, which generates 
organic acids in which the gluten is soluble. The Martin process con- 
sists in making flour into a dough and washing out the starch on sieves 
with continual kneading. The gluten obtained as a by-product in this 
process is valuable as a cattle food and for various technical purposes. 



654 COMMERCIAL ST/1RCHES. 

The starch appears on the market either as lumps, angular granules, 
or a fine powder. 

Microscopic Characters (Fig. 575). The large lenticular grains char- 
acterize this starch. 




1 



Fig. 575. Wheat Starch. X300. (Moeller.) 

Aggregates. The large grains are never united, the small grains only 
rarely. 

Forms. The large grains are lenticular, more or less regularly cir- 
cular in outline. If mounted in considerable water and drawn across 
the field by means of a piece of filter-paper they appear alternately cir- 
cular and elliptical, according as they rest on their sides or their edges. 

The small grains are usually globular, less often polygonal. 

Size. The large grains are commonly 28-40 n in diameter, but in 
rare instances reach 50 /(. The small grains are seldom over 6 // . in 
diameter. 

The Hilum is central, appearing usually as a mere dot. Clefts are 
rare. 

The Rings are indistinct. 

Polarization Crosses. The large grains are feebly illuminated and 
show indistinct crosses. No play of colors is evident with the selenite 
plate. 

BUCKWHEAT STARCH. 

Common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) is used by certain 
EngHsh manufacturers for making starch, although as yet the product 
is not of considerable commercial importance. 



BUCKIVHEAT STARCH. LEGUMINOUS STARCHES. 655 

Microscopic Characters (Fig. 576). Although this starch is similar to 
rice starch, the rod-shaped aggregates furnish a means of distinction. 




Fig. 576. Buckwheat Starch. X300. (Moeller.) 

Rod-shaped Aggregates, consisting of several grains but with no evi- 
dent lines of demarcation, are highly characteristic. They are irregular 
in shape and have numerous constrictions. 

Forms. Polygonal, or rounded polygonal. 

Size. The diameters range from less than 2 u to over 15 //, but are 
commonly 6-12 11. 

The Hilum is conspicuous. 

Rings are not evident even after treatment with chromic acid. 

Polarization Crosses. These are distinct but not striking. 

LEGUMINOUS STARCHES. 

Starch is occasionally made from beans, peas, and other legumes, 
although seldom on a commercial scale. 

Microscopic Characters (Fig. 577). Leguminous starches are mostly of 




Fig. 577. Lentil Starch. X300. (Moeller.) 

the same type, although differing somewhat in form and size. The ellip- 
soidal grains with elongated hilum are highly characteristic. 
Aggregates are rare. 



656 



COMMERCIAL STARCHES. 



Forms. Ellipsoidal grains predominate, although reniform, trefoil- 
shaped and various irregular forms are not uncommon. 

Size. In some species the length of the grain reaches 100 p., but in 
most of the common species is about 50 /u 

Hilum. The elongated hilum, often with branching clefts, is char- 
acteristic. In some grains the hilum and branches being filled with 
air appear black; in other grains both are indistinct. 

Rings distinct. 

Polarization Crosses, because of the elongated hilum, are shaped thus : Y 

CHESTNUT STARCH. 

In southern Europe the chestnut (Castanea saliva Mill.) is used 
for the preparation of both flour and starch. Vogl states that chestnut 
starch is often described as horse-chestnut starch. 

Microscopic Characters (Fig. 578). The large grains of curiou3 
shapes characterize this starch. 




Fig. 578. Chestnut Starch. (Moeller.) 



Aggregates of two or three grains occur here and there, but are not 
abundant. 

Forms. The grains are ellipsoidal, pear-shaped, kidney-shaped, 
heart-shaped, etc. They are often quite sharp-pointed. 

Size. The large grains are 15-30 jj. long, the small grains 1-3 p. 
Intermediate forms are rare. 



CHESTNUT STARCH. HORSE-CHESTNUT STARCH. 



(>S7 



Hilum. This is sometimes round, somet'mes elongated., forming a 
cleft much as in leguminous starches. 

Rings are indistinct or wanting. 

Polarization Crosses are distinct but not striking. With the selenite 
plate a dull play of colors is evident. 



HORSE=CHESTNUT STARCH. 

In France a starch is made from the horse-chestnut (Aesculus Hippo- 
castanum L., order Sapindacea), which, although unfit for food because 
of its bitter taste, is useful in the arts. According to Vogl it is gray- 
white, whereas chestnut starch is pure white. 

Microscopic Characters (Fig. 579). Especially noticeable are the 
grotesque shapes. 




Fig. 579. Horse-chestnut Starch. X3C0. (Moeller.) 

Aggregates. Quite often two or more grains are united to form irregu- 
larly shaped aggregates. Suppantschitsch (see Wiesner) rightly notes 
that the individuals of these aggregates are so closely consolidated that 
they can be distinguished only by the aid of the polariscope. 

Forms. Among the grains are numerous pear-shaped reniform, and 
irregularly swollen forms. 

Size. The large grains are mostly 20-30 p. long, but occasionally 
reach 40 fi. The small grains are often scarcely measurable. 

Hilum. This is distinct and is situated at the broader end. A longi- 
tudinal cleft passing through the hilum is sometimes present. 

Rings are indistinct. 

Polarization Crosses are distinct in the large grains. A play of colors 
is obtained with the selenite plate. 



658 COMMERCIAL STARCHES. 

BEAN=TREE STARCH. 

The seed of Castanospermum Australe Cunn. are used to some extent 
in New South Wales for the production of starch. 

Microscopic Characters. The following description is on Wiesner's 
authority : 

Aggregates. Most of the grains are in aggregates, the number of 
grains thus united being usually 2-5, less often up to 15. 

Forms. Truncated forms from aggregates similar to those of cassava 
starch predominate. Round grains occur rarely. 

Size. The individuals are 2.7-17 [i, but most of them are 5-12 /i. 

The Hilum is distinct. 

Rings are not evident even after treatment with chromic acid. 

BANANA STARCH. 

The banana, plantain, and other fruits of the genus Musa are remark- 
able for the large amount of starch stored up in the green pericarp. This 
is usually regarded as reserve material, but its function is quite different 
from that of starch stored up in seeds, as it is not utihzed by the young 
plantlet, but hke the starch of most green fruits is gradually converted 




Fig. 580. Banana Starch. X300. (Moeller.) 

into sugars during ripening, and in this form is either moved back into 
the tree, or is lost by fermentation and rotting. Its function is more 
nearly that of transitory starch. 

The green fruit used for starch-making is grown chiefly in tropical 
regions of America, particularly in Guiana. 

According to Wiesner only the flour is made in the regions of produc- 
tion, the starch being separated from the flour in European factories. 



BREAD-FRUIT STARCH. POTATO STARCH. 659 

The Microscopic Characters (Fig. 580) resemble those of subterranean 
starches. In addition to the starch grains Vogl finds raphides. 

Aggregates. Tschirch and Ocsterle call attention to the sickle-shaped 
forms, consisting of two large grains united end to end. 

Forms. Fusiform, cigar-shaped, ovoid, rod-shaped, and other elongated 
forms are very striking. 

Size. Most of the grains are 20-40 /t long; some few however reach 

The Hilum is usually situated in the broader end. 
The Rings are very distinct. 

Polarization Crosses. Distinct crosses are seen with crossed Nicols 
and a play of colors with the selenitc plate. 

BREAD=FRUIT STARCH. 

The bread-fruit tree (Artocarpus incisa L., order Artocarpece) yields 
a fruit from which starch has been made in small quantities in South 
America, Reunion, and other tropical regions. 

The Microscopic Characters, according to Wiesner, are as follows: 

Aggregates. All of the grains are in aggregates of from 2-20 members. 

Forms. Polygonal grains predominate. 

Size. 2.5-13 n, usually about 7 fx. 

Hilum and Rings are lacking. 

Polarization Crosses, although never sharp, may be seen with high 
power. 

POTATO STARCH. 

The potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is one of the most valuable sources 
of commercial starch, although the product is not much used as food, 
but is chiefly employed in the manufacture of paper and fabrics, for con- 
version into dextrine and glucose, and for other technical purposes. It is 
made chiefly on the Continent. In the United States it formerly w^as an 
important product, but of late years has been largely replaced by maize 
starch. The process of manufacture is quite simple. The thoroughly 
cleaned tubers are ground or grated, the pulp is washed on sieves, and 
the starch is allowed to settle from the milky hquid. 

The commercial product is in lumps, irregular prisms, or a fine powder. 
The grains are so large as to .be visible to the naked eye. 



66o 



COMMERCIAL STARCHES. 



Microscopic Characters (Fig. 581). This starch is recognized by the 
large, oyster-shell-like grains, each with the hilum in the small end. 




Fig. 581. Potato Starch. X300. (Moeller.) 

Aggregates are rare but curious. They are either true aggregates, 
usually twins or triplets, or compound grains consisting of two individuals, 
each with its ow^n hilum and rings, encircled by layers common to both. 

Forms. The large grains remind us of oyster-shells. Egg-shaped, 
pear-shaped, and broadly spindle-shaped forms are common. The 
small grains are nearly round. 

Size. The large grains range up to 100 /« in length, most of them 
being about 70 ix. The small grains are but a few micromillimeters in 
diameter. 

The Hilum is in the small end, the excentricity being J-|-. 

The Rings are very distinct and are evident without special illumination. 

Polarization Crosses are very distinct. With the selenite plate a fine 
play of colors is obtained. 



HARANTA STARCH (WEST INDIA ARROWROOT). 

The starch obtained from the rhizome of Maranta arundinacea L. 
(order Marantacece) and other species of the same genus originally had 
the undisputed claim to the term " arrowroot," but more recently other 
tropical starches, particularly those made from roots and rhizomes, have 
been designated by the same term. Maranta starch is now variously 



MARA NT A STARCH. 66 1 

known in commerce as West India, Jamaica, Bermuda, St. Vincent, and 
Natal arrowroot. 

The process of manufacture is essentially the same as is used for 
making potato starch, — in fact all the varieties of starch made from tubers, 
rhizomes, and roots are obtained in much the same manner. 

West India arrowroot is highly prized for making various dietetic 
preparations. 

Microscopic Characters (Fig. 582). The grains resemble those of 
potato starch, but are distinguished by their somewhat smaller size, the 




Fig. 582. Maranta Starch. X300. (Moeller.) 

location of the hilum in the broad end and the wing-like fissures through 
the hilum. 

Aggregates are rare or absent 

Forms. Ovoid, pear-shaped, and broadly spindle-shaped grains pre- 
dominate. 

Size. The large grains are mostly 30-50 n long, but occasionally 
reach 75 /i. 

The Hilum is in the broad end and is usually marked by fissures 
which either form crosses or more commonly extend in two curves resem- 
bhng the wings of a soaring bird. 

The Rings, although distinct, are not so prominent as in potato starch. 

The Polarization Crosses and the pla> of colors with the selenite plate 
are very striking. 



662 COMMERCIAL STARCHES. 

CURCUMA STARCH (EAST INDIA ARROWROOT). 

East India, curcuma, or Travencore starch, also known as Tik, Tikor, 
and Tikur flour, is obtained from the rhizomes of several species of Cur- 
cuma (order ZingiberacecE), notably, C. angusti folia Rxb., C. Leucorrhiza 
Rxb., and C ruhescens Rxb. These plants are closely related to tur- 
meric (C longa), and together with ginger belong to the family Zingi- 
bcracecr. 

Microscopic Characters (Fig. 583). The grains resemble those of ginger, 




I 



Fig. 583. Curcuma Starch. X300. (Moeller.) 

but are more elongated. Like ginger starch they have a curious blunt 
point in which is located the hilum 

Aggregates are rare or absent. 

Forms. The grains are much elongated, the length being usually 
over twice the breadth. The hilum end is distinguished by the curious 
blunt point. 

Size. The grains from C. Leucorrhiza sometimes reach 145 ft, but 
those from the other species seldom exceed 75/4 and are mostly under 60 /«. 

The Hilum is a small dot in the point. The exccntricity is i-jV- 

Polarization Crosses are distinct, and a beautiful play of colors is 
obtained with the sclenite plate. 

CANNA STARCH (QUEENSLAND ARROWROOT). 

Queensland, New South Wales, East Indian, or tous les mois arrow- 
root is obtained from the rhizomes of Canna edulis Edw., C. coccinea 
Rose, C Indica L., C. Achiras Gill (order Marantacece), and other 



CANNA STARCH YAM STARCH. 663 

species growing not only in Australia and the East Indies but also in 
Brazil, Venezuela, Reunion, and other tropical regions. It is a glistening 
white powder with individual grains so large that they are evident to 
the naked eye. 

Microscopic Characters (Fig. 584). This starch, because of the large 




Fig. 584. Canna Starch. X300. (Moeller.) 

size of the grains and the distinctness of the rings, is the most beautiful 
of all the commercial starches. 

Aggregates are wanting or rare. 

Forms. The grains are flattened, in outhne broadly eUiptical or 
ovate, with a more or less pronounced point or obtuse angle at one end. 

Size. Most of the grains are 50 to 70 /t long, but some are over 100 /<, 
reaching in exceptional cases 135 /f- 

The Hiliim is in the end with the obtuse angle. Exccntricity usually 

6 T 

Rings are very distinct. 

Polarization Crosses are beautiful, as is also the play of colors with 
the selenite plate. 

YAM STARCH (GUIANA ARROWROOT). 

Yam starch, or Guiana arrowroot, is made in the tropics from the tuber- 
ous roots of Dioscorea alata L., D. sativa L., D. aculeata L., D. glabra 
Roxb., D. Japonica Thbg., D. nummularia Lam., D. tomentosa Koenio- 
(order Dioscoracece), and other species of this genus. 



664 COMMERCML STARCHES. 

Microscopic Characters (Fig. 585). This starch resembles curcuma, 
starch, but the grains are not as distinctly pointed. The product is quite 
variable, owing probably to the different species from which it is derived. 




Fig. 585. Yam Starch. X300. (Moeller.) 

Forms. The grains are flattened in outhne, irregularly ovate or 
reniform. At the broad end they are often truncated; at the narrow 
or hilum end, rounded or very indistinctly pointed. 

Size. Usually the grains are 30-50 p. long, but occasionally reach 
80 11. 

The Hilum is in the narrow end. Excentricity \-^. 

The Rings are evident. 

Polarization Crosses are distinct, as is true of most subterranean 
starches. 

CASSAVA STARCH. 

The thickened roots of the bitter cassava (Manihot utilissima Pohl, 
order Euphorhiacea) and the sweet cassava (M. aipi Pohl) are used for 
the production not only of flour, tapioca, and cattle foods, but also of a 
valuable commercial starch known as cassava, tapioca, or manioca starch, 
and as Bahia, Rio or Para arrowroot. The starch is made in large 
quantities in Brazil, and to some extent in other tropical regions, from 
the root of the bitter cassava, the poisonous prussic acid contained in the 
fresh root being entirely eliminated by the processes of washing and dry- 
ing. This product is sold in the United States at a price below that of 
maize starch, and is used chiefly in the arts. In Florida considerable 
starch is made from the sweet cassava for use as a size for cotton fabrics. 




CASSAVA STARCH. SIVEET-POTATO STARCH. 665 

Microscopic Characters (Fig. 586). This starch is the most important 
of the commercial varieties with rounded grains truncated on one side. 
Although in tapioca the grains are more or less distorted, owing to the 
heating during manufacture, they often retain enough of their characters 
to permit of identification. 

Aggregates, usually of 2-3 grains, less often of 4-8 grains, may be 
seen in great numbers in sections of the root. In the manufacture of 
commercial starch these aggregates are 
mostly broken up into their constituent 
grains. 

Forms. The grains are usually kettle- 
drum- or sugar-loaf-shaped, the flattened 
surfaces corresponding to the surfaces of 
contact of twin aggregates. Round grains 
are rare, those that have that appearance 
being merely truncated forms resting on 
the flattened side. Grains with two 
flattened surfaces (from triplets) are not Fig. 586. Cassava starch. X300. 

. r / (MOELLER.) 

uncommon, but with more than two sur- 
faces (from aggregates of more than three members) are rare. 

Size. The grains occasionally reach 35 /i, but most of the large 
grains are 20 /i or less. The small grains are less than 15 /i. Grains 
50 n in diameter, such as occur in sweet-potato starch, are never 
present. 

The Hilum is central, and is usually very distinct. Often a triangular 
enlargement of the hilum extends to the flattened surface. Clefts radia- 
ting from the hilum are sometimes present. 

Rings are indistinct. 

Polarization Crosses are very striking. 

SWEET=POTATO STARCH (BRAZILIAN ARROWROOT). 

Although the sweet-potato plant {Batatas edulis Chois., Ipomosa 
Batatas Lam., order Convolvulacece) is a native of India, it is grown 
chiefly in South America, Central America, and the Southern States of 
the United States. The tuberous roots contain reserve material in the 
form of both starch and sugar. Wiesner states that sweet potatoes grown 
in the tropics contain 10 per cent of sugar and only 9 per cent of starch, 
whereas those grown in subtropical countries contain only 3-4 per cent 



666 COMMERCIAL STARCHES. 

of sugar and as high as 15 per cent of starch. From these figures it is 
evident that the roots from the cooler regions are best adapted for the 
manufacture of starch. 

The commercial product is known as Brazihan arrowroot, or sweet- 
potato starch. 

Microscopic Characters (Fig. 587). This starch resembles that of 
tapioca, but the grains are larger and have an excentric hilum. 




Fig. 587. Sweet-potato Starch. X300. (Moeller.) 

The Aggregates consist mostly of twins and triplets, although some 
contain as high as six individuals. In the commercial product the grains 
are mostly detached. 

Forms. The grains have one or two, less often more, fiat or slightly 
concave surfaces. Bell-shaped forms are particularly abundant. 

Size. Most of the larger grains are 25-35 /' ^^^ diameter; some, 
however, reach 55 /x. The small grains are chiefly 5-15 jx. 

The Hilum is distinct, and is frequently marked by radiating fissures. 
The excentricity is usually about ^, but sometimes reaches -g-. 

Rings are indistinct. 

Polarization Crosses. These arc striking. 

ARUM STARCH (PORTLAND ARROWROOT). 

Portland arrowroot and some other varieties of commercial starch 
of local importance are obtained from the corms of various species of 
Arum (order Aracea), of which A. esculentiim L., A. Italicum Lam., 
and A. maculatum L. are the most important. 

Microscopic Characters. Aggregates occur in the root, but not in 
considerable numbers in the commercial product. 



TACCA STARCH. SAGO. 66^ 

Forms. The grains are either polygonal or rounded, with one or 
more facets. 

Size. The maximum diameter is 20 /£, the usual diameter less than 

15 Z^- 

The Hilum is central. 

Rings are indistinct. 

TACCA STARCH (TAHITI ARROWROOT). 

This starch, also known as Williams' arrowroot and jecule de pia, is 
made from the roots of Tacca pinnatifida Forst., order Taccacece, a plant 
grown not only in Tahiti and neighboring islands, but also in Brazil 
and India. 

Microscopic Characters. According to the description of Tschirch 
and Oesterle the grains are irregularly egg-shaped, with excentric hilum 
and distinct rings. The large grains are usually 38-50 //, but vary 
up to 85 jx. Wiesner states that the largest grains measure 45 [i, and 
further notes the presence of polygonal grains of somewhat smaller size 
from aggregates. 

Further observations on authentic material are desirable. 

SAGO. 

Reserve starch is deposited in large amounts during certain periods 
of growth in the pith of palms and cycads for use during the fruiting 
season. In India and the East Indies this starch is extracted in 
enormous quantities from two palms, Metroxylon Rumphii Mart. (Sagus 
Rumphii Willd.) and M. lave Mart. {S. Icevis Rumph.), and in consider- 
able quantities from M. Sagus, M. Koenigii Rumph., Arenga saccharifera 
Labill, Borassus flabelliformis L., Caryota urens L., and other allied species. 

Sago is also obtained from Cycas revoluta L., and other cycads. 

The processes of manufacture of sago starch and pearl sago are much 
the same as are employed in making starch and tapioca from the cassava 
root. The pith of the tree, separated from the hard outer layers, is reduced 
to a pulp, and the starch is washed out on sieves. Soluble impurities 
and matters in suspension are removed by repeated agitation with water 
and decantation. The moist starch after drying yields sago flour or 
sago arrowroot. 

In the preparation of pearl sago the moist starch is converted into 



668 



COMMERCIAL STARCHES. 



coarse granules by rubbing through sieves, and these granules are dried, 
rounded by agitation in bags, and finally heated until the starch grains 
are partially destroyed. The granules are from 1-4 mm. in diameter, 
horny in texture, and semitransparent. 

Microscopic Characters (Fig. 588). The starch is highly characteristic 




Fig. 588. Sago. X300. (Moeller.) 

in microscopic appearance, even in pearl sago and other partially cooked 
products. 

Aggregates of one large irregular grain, with one or two (rarely 
three or more) small grains, make up the larger part of the original 
material, but in the process of manufacture many of these aggregates are 
broken up. 

Forms. The large detached grains from the aggregates are irregular 
in shape, and show the surfaces of contact. When two of these surfaces 
are present they are usually at different corners of the grain, and not adja- 
cent, as in the starch grains of tapioca. A few of the large grains, and 
many of the small grains, do not bear evidences of being members of 
aggregates. 

The small grains from aggregates are plano-convex. ^ 

Size. The large grains are mostly 30-50 it long, but sometimes 
range up to 80 /a; the small grains are 20 // or less long. 

The Hilum has usually an excentricity of ^-\, and is frequently 
crossed by fissures. 

The Rings and Polarization Crosses are distinct. 



SAGO. MISCELLANEOUS STARCHES. 



669 



In pearl sago and other cooked products the above characters are 
more or less indistinct. 

As formerly prepared sago flour usually contained considerable amounts 
of tissues and cell-contents, especially stone cells, hairs, raphides, and 



P 







& 



i?. 



8«. 







t^ 



& 



(^ 



^^^^^ 



d S 






^ 






/3 Q^ 



Fig. 58^, Erylhronium Starch. (Moeller.) 

crystal clusters, but at present these impurities are largely removed by 
the improved processes of manufacture. 



MISCELLANEOUS STARCHES. 

The starches described in the foregoing sections are those best known 
in commerce. Others of local importance are obtained from the plants 
given in the following table: 

Order and Species. Part Used. Locality. 

AmaryTidea: 

Alsircemeria pallida Grah Bulb Chili 

Bomarea sp " " 

Pancratium maritimum L * * Italy 

AnacardiacecB: 

Mangijera Indica L. (mango) Seed West Indies 

Araceas: 

Amor pho phallus sp Corm " " 

Colocasia antiquorum Schott " Martinique 

Dracontiimi sp " West Indies 

Typhonium sp ** " " 

Araucariacece: 

Araucaria sp Brazil 



670 COMMERCIAL STARCHES. 

Order and Species. Part Used. Locality. 

Cucurbitacea : 

Bryonia epigcza Rottl Root East Indies 

Sechium ediile Sw " West Indies 

Sicyos angulatus D.C " Reunion 

GraminecB : 

Eleusine Coracana Gaertn Seed West Indies 

HypoxidecB : 

Hypoxis aurea Lam Bulb East Indies 

LeguminoscB : 

Dolichos hulbosiis L Root Japan 

Parkia biglandulosa '., Pod East Indies 

Pueraria Thunbergiana Kunth Seed Japan, China 

Liliacea : 

Erythronium Dens-canis L Bulb Japan 

Fritillaria imperialis L " France 

Gloriosa superba L " East Indies 

Yucca gloriosa L Bulbous root Central America 

Malvacece : 

Pachira aquatica Aubl Seed Guiana 

NympJuBacecB : 

Nelumbium speciosum Willd Root China 



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Hanausek, T. F.: Kaffee; Thee; Safran; Pfeflfergewiirze; Muskatnuss; 

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Meyer, Arthur: Ingwer; Senf; Kardamomen. 
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Wittmack: Brot; Mehle; Starke. 

671 



672 GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

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43. Vogl: Nahrungs- und Genussmittel aus dem Pflanzenreiche. Anleitung zum 

richtigen Erkennen und Priifen der wichtigsten im Handel vorkommenden 
Nahrungsmittel, Genussmittel und Gewiirze mit Hilfe des Mikroskops. Mit 
116 feinen Holzschnittbildern. Wien, 1872. 



674 GEhlERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

44. Vogl: Arzneikorper aus den drei Naturreichen in pharmakognostischer Hinsicht. 

Commentar zur osterr. Pharmacopoe. Wien. Dritte Aufl. 1880; siebente 
Aufl. 1892. 

45. Vogl: Die wichtigsten vegetabilischen Nahrungs- und Genussmittel mit besonderer 

Beriicksichtigung der mikroskopischen Untersuchung auf ihre Echtheit, 
ihre Verunreinigungen und Verfalschungen. Mit 271 Holzschnitten. 
Berlin und Wien, 1889. 

46. Wigand: Lehrbuch der Pharmakognosie. Berlin, 1863; vierte Aufl. 1887. 

47. Wiesner: Einleitung in die technische Mikroskopie nebst mikroskopisch-tech- 

nischen Untersuchungen. Wien, 1867. 

48. Wiesner: Die Rohstoffe des Pflanzenreiches. Versuch einer technischen Rohstoff- 

lehre des Pflanzenreiches. Leipzig, 1873. Zweite ganzlich umgearbeit. 
und erweit. Aufl. I. Bd. mit 153 Textfiguren, 1900; II. Bd. mit 297 Text- 
figuren, 1903. 

Hanausek, T. F.: Samen und Friichte. 

Hohnel: Rinden. 

Krasser: Blatter und Krauter. 

Linsbauer: Bluthen und Bliithentheile. 

Vogl: Unterirdische Pflanzentheile. 

Wiesner: Starke. 

49. Wiley et al. : Foods and Food Adulterants. Q. S. Department of Agriculture, 

Division of Chemistry, Bulletin No. 1 3, Washington, 1887. 



GLOSSARY. 



Accompanying Cells. The cells adjoining the guard-cells of a stoma. 

Accumbent. Applied to seeds with radicle against the edges of the cotyledons (p. 173). 

Achene. A small dry, indehiscent, one-seeded carpsl with a leathery pericarp. 

Adnate. Grown to another part. 

Aerial Stem. A stem formed above ground as distinguished from rhizomes and other 
subterranean stems (p. 39). 

Aggregate. Used of starch grains united to form a body of definite shape. 

Aggregate Fruit. A fruit formed by the ripening of a flower with several ovaries 
(P- 33'^ Fig. 256). 

Aleurone Cells, or Aleurone Layer. Strictly, cells of the perisperm or embryo, con- 
taining aleurone grains and fat, but no starch. The so-called aleurone or gluten 
cells of the cereals contain fat in an amorphous proteid network, but neither aleu- 
rone grains nor gluten (p. 62; Figs. ;^^ and 38). 

Aleurone Grains. Proteid bodies of various forms occurring chiefly in seeds (p. 24; 
Fig. 7)- 

Alkaloids. A group of nitrogenous substances with marked to.xic or stimulating prop- 
erties (p. 25). 

Amphitropous. See Hemitropous. 

Amylodextrin. A carbohydrate inteiTncdiate between dextrin and starch. 

Amylodextrin Starch (p. 534). 

Anastomosis. The joining of veins by cross-veins, forming a network. 

Anatropous. Inverted; applied to ovules and seeds with foramen or micro pyle at the 
hilum, connected by the raphe with the chalaza at the opposite end (Fig. 19). 

Angiosperms, or Angiospermous Plants. Phenogams with ovules inclosed in an ovary. 

Annular Vessels. Vessels with thickened rings (Fig. 25). 

Anther. The body at the extremity of the stamen, containing the pollen grains (p. 31). 

Apex. The end farthest from the point of attachment or base of an organ. 

Arillode. An appendage of a seed growing out of the micropyle. 

Arillus, or Seed Mantle. An appendage of a seed growing out of the hilum (Fig. 448). 

Ascus, pi. Asci. A sac producing spores within (p. 420; Fig. 325). 

Assimilation. See Photosynthesis. 

Assimilation Starch. The starch formed in chlorophyl grains. 

Astroscelereid. Star-shaped stone-cell. 

67s 



676 GLOSSARY. 

Awn. A bristle borne on the glume or palet of a grass. 

Axil. The upper angle between a leaf and a*ste;T>. 

Bark. All the tissues of perennial stems outside of the cambium layer (p. 40: 

Fig. 24). 
Basidium, pi. Basidia. A sac producing spores on its surface (p. 420). 
Bast. Sec Phloem. 

Bast Fib3rs. Greatly elongated, pointed cells with thick porous walls (p. 21; Fig. 5). 
Beaker Cells. Cells with thickened radial and inner walls (p. 173; Fig. 144). 
Bracts. The small leaves or scales subtending a flower or its pedicel. 
Bulb. A leaf bud (usually subterranean) surrounded by thickened scales. 
Bundle Sheath. A group of bast fibers surrounding or adjoining a bundle (Figs. 231 

and 232). 
Calyx. The outer floral envelope, consisting of sepals. 
Cambiform Cells. Elongated elements of the phloem with non-porous cross partitions 

(Fig. 6). 
Cambium Layer. The active tissue of exogenous stems and roots, forming phloem on 

the outside and xylem on the inside (p. 39). 
Campylotropous. Applied to ovules and seeds with the hilum and chalaza at the 

point of attachment, but with the body so curved as to bring the foramen or micro- 

pyle also near this point. 
Cane Sugar, or Sucrose. Common sugar, Ci2H?-0ii. 
Carpel. A simple pistil or an element of a compound pistil. 
Carpophore. The prolongation of the pedicel between the carpels of umbelliferous 

plants, from which the carpels are suspended (p. 549; Fig. 480). 
Caruncle. A wart-like excrescence formed on the micro pyle of a seed. 
Caryopsis. A dry, one-seeded, indehiscent fruit in which the seed adheres to the thin 

pericarp throughout, as in wheat and other grains. 
Cell Nucleus. A globular protoplasmic body in the cell, instrumental in cell division 

0^- 23). 

Cellulose. The carbohydrate forming the larger part of the cell-walls of young tissues. 

Chaff. The glumes and palets of grasses. 

Chalaza. The part of an ovule or seed where the integuments and nucellus unite 

(P- 35; Fig- 19)- 
Chartaceous. Papery. 
Chlorophyl Grains. See Chloroplasts. 
Chloroplasts, Chloroplastids, or Chlorophyl Grains. The characteristic bodies of 

green tissues, essential for photosynthesis (p. 29). 
Chromatophores. See Plastids. 
Chromoplasts, or Chromoplastids. Orange or yellow plastids, to wliich certain organs 

owe their color (p. 24). 
Cleft. With narrow or acute divisions or sinuses extending half way or more to the 

midrib or base. 
Collateral Fibro-vascular Bundle. With phloem and .xylem in the same radial plane 

(P- 39)- 
CoUenchyma. A tissue with conspicuous thickenings at the cell angles (p. 20; 

F'g- 3)- 



GLOSSARY. 677 

Column Cells. The subepidermal cells of the spermoderm of legumes, usually 

I-shaped or hour-glass-shaped (p. 239; Fig. 189). 
Commissure. The surfaces of contact of the two fruits (merciarps) of the Umbcllijem 

(P- 549)- 
Compound or Multiple Fruit. A fruit consisting of the ripened ovaries of several 

flowers. 
Compressed Cells. Sec Obliterated Cells. 
Concentric Fibro-vascular Bundle. With xylem encircling the phloem or vice versa 

(p. 44). 
Conduplicate. Applied to seeds with cotyledons folded lengthwise about the radicle. 

(P- 173)- 
Conidium. See Gonidiiim. 

Coniferous Plants, or Conifers. Gymnosperms bearing cones. 
Convolute. Rolled up longitudinally from one margin. 
Coriaceous. Leathery. 
Cork. A protective tissue formed beneath the epidermis, especially of stems (p. 22; 

Fig. 512). 
Conn. A short and thick, fleshy, subterranean stem, often broader than high, with 

roots on the lower side. 
Corolla. The inner floral envelope, consisting of petals. 
Cortex. The zone between the epidermis'and phloem of annual stems, and between 

the cork and phloem of perennial stems (pp. 39, 40). 
Cotyledons. The seed-leaves of the embryo. 
Crenate. With margin having rounded teeth. 
Cross Cells. Transversely elongated cells (p. 62; Fig. 36). 
Cryptogamous Plants, or Cryptogams. The lower plants without stamens and 

pistils. 
Crystalloids. Proteid crystals occurring in aleurone grains (p. 24). 
Crystal Rosettes, or Crystal Clusters. Aggregates of crystals, particularly of calcium 

oxalate (p. 26; Fig. 8). 
Crystal Sand. Deposits of minute crystals (p. 26; Fig. 10). 
Cupule. The cup (involucre) of the acorn and similar fruits (p. 299). 
Cuticle. The non-cellular membrane covering the epidermis (p. 21). 
Cutin. The chief constituent of the cuticle. 

Cystolith. A concretion of calcium carbonate occurring in special cells (Fig. 169). 
Cytoplasm. The semi-fluid portion of the protoplasm (p. 23). 
Dehiscent. Opening by valves, pores, or along regular lines. 
Dentate. With margin having teeth pointing outwards. 

Dextrin. A v/ater-soluble carbohydrate intermediate between dextrose and starch. 
Dextrose, or Grape Sugar. A sugar with the formula C^HiL-Og, which turns the plane 

of polarized light to the right. 
Dicotyledonous Plants, or Dicotyledons. Plants with embryo having two cotyledons. 

See Exogenous Plants. 
Dioecious. With staminate and pistillate flowers on difi"erent plants. 
Divided. With divisions extending quite to the midrib or base. 
Dorsal Side. The outer side or back. 



678 GLOSSARY. 

Drupe, or Stone Fruit. A fruit with a fleshy mesocarp and a hard endocarp or stone, 

such as the peach. 
Drupelet. A small drupe. 

Ellipsoidal. Applied to a solid elliptical in longitudinal section. 
Elliptical. With the outline of an ellipse. 
Emergence. A multicellular excrescence or hair with tissues derived from both the 

epidermal and hypodermal layers. 
Embryo. The undeveloped plantlet in a seed (p. 38). 

Embryo Sac. The sac in the nucellus in which fertilization is effected (p. 35; Fg. 19). 
Empty Glumes. The two chaffy envelopes subtending a spikelet (Fig. 66). 
Endocarp. The innermost layer of a pericarp (p. 35; Figs. 17 and 18). 
Endodermis. The layer encircling the bundle zone (pp. 39, 45). 

Endogenous Plants, or Endogens. Plants with bundles irregularly distributed through 
a parenchymatous tissue. The seeds have monocotyledonous embryos and the 
leaves are usually parallel-veined. 
Endosperm. The albumen of the seed which, like the embryo, is developed in the 

embryo sac (p. 35). 
Entire. Unbroken by divisions. 

Epicarp. The outer epidermis of a fruit (p. 35; Figs. 17 and 18). 
Epidermis. The outermost or innermost cell layer of an organ. See Epicarp. 
Essential or Volatile Oils. Alcohol soluble inixtures of turpenes with other substances 

(p. 26). 
Exogenous Plants, or Exogens. Plants with fibro-vascular bundles in a ring, forming 
new wood on the outside of the old. The seeds have dicotyledonous or poly- 
cotyledonous embryos and the leaves are usually netted-veined. 
Fats and Oils. Compounds of fatty acids with glycerine (p. 26). 

Fibro-vascular Bundle, or Vascular Bundle. A group of conducting elements con- 
sisting of xylem and phloem, with often a sheath of bast fibers (pp. 22, 39-45; 
Figs. 6, 231, and 232). 
Filament. The slender stalk of the stamen bearing the anther. 
Flowering Glume. The outer (lower) of the two envelopes subtending each flower 

of a spikelet of a grass (p. 60; Fig. 32). 
Foramen. The opening at one end of an ovule through which the pollen tubes enter 

(P- 34; Fig. 19). 
Fruit. The matured ovary and all it contains or that is connected with it (p. ^^). 
Fruit Coat. See Pericarp. 
Fugaceous. Lasting but a short time. 
Funiculus. The stem of an ovule. 
Geniculate. Bent abruptly. 

Glabrous. Smooth, i.e., free from hairs or bristles. 
Gland. A modified cell secreting different substances. Loosely used for any slight 

swelling. 
Glandular Hairs. See Hairs. 
Glaucous. Covered with a bloom. 

Globoids. Globular bodies occurring in aleurone grains (p. 25). 
Glucosides. Compounds of sugars with organic acids. 



GLOSSARY. 679 

Gluten Cells See Aleuronc Cells. 

Gonidium, pi. Gonidia. Same as Conidium, pi. Conidia. An asexual reproductive 
cell (p. 164). 

Ground Substance. The material in which are embedded specially differentiated 
bodies, as the ground substance of aleurone grains (p. 24). 

Ground Tissue. A tissue, usually parenchyma, in which others are embedded. 

Guard Cells. The two crescent-shaped cells surrounding a stoma (p. 29; Figs. 1 1 and 1 2). 

Gums. Mucilaginous substances soluble in water but precipitated by alcohol. 

Gymnospermous Plants, or Gymnosperms. Phenogams having naked ovules. 

Hadrome. See Phloem. 

Hairs, or Trichomes. Unicellular or multicellular outgrowths of the epidermis (p. 29). 

Hairs, Glandular. Hairs with a secretion chamber at the apex (Figs. 11 and 425). 

Hastate. Halbert-shaped; with lobes at the base turned outwards. 

Hemitropous, or Amphitropous. Applied to ovules or seeds with hilum midway be- 
tween the chalaza and foramen (micropyle). 

Hermaphrodite With stamens and pistils in the same flower. 

Hilum, pi. Hilums or Hila. (i) The scar or place of attachment of an ovule or seed 
to its funiculus or stalk; (2) the organic center of a starch grain (p. 647). 

Hirsute. Rough hairy. 

Hour-glass Cells. See Column Cells. 

Hyaline. Transparent or translucent. 

Hymenium. An aggregation of reproductive cells in a fungus (p. 420). 

Hypha, pi. Hyphas. A vegetative thread of a fungus. 

Hypoderm. The layer or layers of cells immediately underlying the epidermis; here 
used chiefly for the hypoderm of fruits. 

I Cells. See Column Cells. 

Idioblast. A cell which differs greatly, in form, size, or contents, from the tissue in 
which it occurs. 

Imbricated. Overlapping one another. 

Incumbent. Applied to seeds with radicle against the back of one of the cotyledons 

(P- 173)- 

Indehiscent. Not ojDening by valves, pores, or along regular lines. 

Inferior. Growing below some other organ. An inferior calyx is free from the ovary. 
An inferior ovary is united with the calyx tube. 

Inflorescence. The arrangement of flowers on the stem, or a flower cluster itself. 

Intercellular Spaces. Cavities between cells (Fig. i). 

Inulin. A water-soluble carbohydrate found in various rcots. It forms sphasro-crystals 
in alcohol. 

Invert Sugar. A mixture of equal parts of dextrose and levulose obtained by the inver- 
sion of cane sugar. 

Involucre. A circle of bracts surrounding the base of a compound flower or a cluster 
of flowers. 

Involute. Rolled longitudinally on the upper side from both margins. 

Isodiametric. Having approximately equal dimensions. 

Lanceolate. Much longer than broad, and tapering at the apex, or at both the apex 
and the base. 



68o GLOSSARY. 

Latex Tubes. Branching tubes containing a milky secretion (Figs. 341 and 343). 

Leptome. See Phloem. 

Leucoplasts, or Leucoplastids. Colorless plastids instrumental in the formation of 

starch (p. 644; Fig. 570). 
Levulose, or Fruit Sugar. A sugar with the formula C6H12O6, which turns the plane 

of polarized light to the left. 
Light Line. A bright line perpendicular to the axis of the cell seen in the palisade 

cells of legumes and other seeds (p. 234; Fig. 200). 
Lignin. The characteristic constituent of woody or sclerenchymatized tissues. 
Lobed. With rounded divisions or sinuses extending not more than half way to the 

midrib or base. 
Locules. The cavities or macroscopic cells of a fruit or other organ. 
Lodicules. The two very small hyaline scales between the base of a flower and its 

glume (p. 61). 
Lumen, pi. Lumens or Lumina. The cavity enclosed by the walls of a cell. 
Malpighian Cells. The palisade epidermis of leguminous seeds (p. 233; Fig. 200). 
Mericarp. One carpel of the fruit of an umbelliferous plant (p. 549). 
Meristem. A tissue, usually in a zone, forming other tissues by cell division. 
Mesocarp. The middle layers of a pericarp (p. 35). 
Mesophyl. The middle layers of a leaf (p. 29; Fig. 11). 

Micropyle. The opening of a seed corresponding to the foramen of the ovule (Fig. 19). 
Middle Lamella. The primary or middle layer between cells. 
Midrib. The central nerve of a leaf. 
Mitscherlichian Bodies. Multicellular hairs occurring on the epidermis of the embryo 

of the cocoa bean (p. 446; Fig. 348). 
Monocotyledonous Plants, or Monocotyledons. Plants with embryos having one 

cotyledon. See Endogenous Plants. 
Monoecious. With staminate and pistillate flowers on the same plant. 
Morphology. The study of vegetable parts with reference to their form, origin, and 

metamorphoses. 
Mycelium, pi. Mycelia. The vegetative portion of a fungus consisting of h3'pha2. 
Naked Fruit. A fruit readily separating from its envelopes. 
Nucellus. The body of the ovule (p. 35; Fig. 19). 
Nucleus. See Cell Nucleus. 
Nutritive Layer. A layer of the spermoderm, several cells thick, containing starch or 

other contents which are translocated to other parts during ripening. 
Obliterated Cells. Compressed cells with little or no evidence of their cellular structure. 
Obovate. With the outline of a longitudinal section of a hen's egg; attachment at the 

smaller end. 
Obovoid. Egg-shaped with attachment at the smaller end; solid obovate. 
Oil Cells. Cells secreting fatty or essential oil. 
Oil Ducts. Ducts containing essential oil, as the vittae of umbelliferous fruits 

(p- 549)- 
Orthotropous. Applied to ovules and seeds with both hilum and chalaza at the point 

of attachment, and the foramen or micropyle at the opposite end. 
Oval. Broadly elliptical. 



GLOSSARY. 68 1 

Ovary. The body of the pistil in which are contained the ovules and which later 

develops into the fruit (Fig. 19). 
Ovate. With the outline of a longitudinal section of a hen's egg; attachment at the 

larger end. 
Ovoid. Egg-shaped with attachment at the larger end; solid ovate. 
Ovule. A body contained in the ovary which, after fertilization, develops into a seed. 
Palet, or Palea. The upper (inner) of the two envelopes subtending each flower of a 

spikelet of a grass (p. 60, Fig. 32). 
Palisade Cells. Elongated cells arranged perpendicular to the surface, resembling in 

cross section a palisade (Fig. 166). 
Palmate. With divisions radiating from the end of the stem, like the fingers of a hand. 
Panicle. A loose, branching flower cluster. 

Papilionaceous. Butterfly-shaped, such as the flowers of the pea. 
Papilla, pi. Papillae. Soft nipple- or club-shaped protuberances. 
Pappus. The modified calyx lobes, consisting of bristles, hairs, teeth, or a cup, which 

crown the achenes of the Composites. 
Parenchyma. The simplest form of ti.ssue, such as pith, mesophyl, etc. (p. 20; Fig. i). 
Parenchyma, Spongy. A loose parenchyma with pronounced intercellular spaces 

(p. 20; Fig. 2). 
Parqueted Cells. Elongated cells arranged in groups, those in the same group side 

by side and extended in a different direction from those in other groups (Fig. 472). 
Parted. With divisions extending almost to the midrib or base. 
Pedicel. The stem of a single flower of a group. 
Peduncle. The stem of a solitary flower or a group of flowers. 
Perianth. The floral envelopes, consisting of calyx, or calyx and corolla. 
Pericambium. See Pericycle. 

Pericarp, or Fruit Coat. The matured ovary wall (p. T,y, Figs. 17 and 18). 
Pericycle. The outer layer of the stele, adjoining the endodermis (p. 40). 
Periderm. The outer bark, consisting chiefly of cork cells. 

Perisperm. The part of a seed developed from the nucellus of an ovule (p. 38; Fig. 20). 
Petals. See Corolla. 
Petiole. The stem of a leaf. 
Phanerogamous Plants, or Phanerogams. The higher plants having true flowers 

with stamens and pistils. 
Phelloderm. The tissue formed on the inner side of the phellogen. 
Phellogen. The meristematic layer forming cork on the outside and phelloderm or 

secondary cortex on the inside. 
Phenogamous Plants, or Phenogams (also spelled Phanogams). See Phanerogams. 
Phloem, Bast, or Leptone. The softer part of a fibro-vascular bundle, consisting of 

sieve-tubes, cambiform cells, and other non-lignified elements (p. 22). 
Photosynthesis, or Assimilation. The formation through the agency of ligl:t of organic 

matter in chlorophyl tissues from carbonic acid and water (p. 28). 
Pigment Cells. Cells containing coloring matter. 

Pinnate. Arranged on both sides of an axis, like the vanes of a feather. 
Pistil. The female element of the flower, consisting of ovary, style, and stigma. 
Pith. The central parenchymatous core of exogenous roots and stems. 



682 GLOSSARY. 

Pits. See Pores. 

Placentae. The parts of the ovary bearing the ovules. 

Plastids, or Chromatophores. Protoplasmic grains, including .chloroplasts, leucoplasts, 

and chromoplasts (p. 23). 
Plumule. The bud or growing point of the embryo above the cotyledons (Fig. 62). 
Polarization Crosses. Dark crosses seen on starch grains when examined under the 

micro-polariscope with crossed Nicol prisms. .w& I 

Pollen Grains. The fecundating powder formed in the anthers. ^^» ' 

Pollen Tubes. The tubes formed on pollen grains which penetrate the ovule and 

effect fertilization (Fig. 19). 
Pome. A fleshy fruit with united receptacle and pericarp, such as the apple. 
Pores, or Pits. Openings or depressions in cell walls, affording communication between 

adjoining cells. 
Procambium. The elongated cells of the embryo from which the fibro-vascular 

bundles are developed. 
Proteids, or Albuminoids. A class of substances containing about 16 p^r cent of nitrogen, 

to which belong gluten, legumen, etc. (p. 24). 
Protoplasm. The Hving matter of the cell, consisting of cytoplasm, cell nucleus, and 

plastids (p. 23). 
Pubescent. Soft hairy. 

Raceme. A flower cluster with one-flowered pedicels arranged along a common axis. 
Rachis. The axis of a spike or of a compound leaf. 
Radial Fibro-vascular Bundle. With phloem and xylem in different radial planes 

alternating with each other (p. 45). 
Radial Walls. Walls perpendicular to the surface of an organ. 

Radicle. The stem of the embryo, from the lower end of which develops the root. 
Raphe. The strand of vascular elements joining the hilum of a seed with the chalaza 

(P- 35; Fig- 19)- 
Raphides. Needle-shaped crystals (Fig. 9). 

Receptacle. The immediate support of a group of flowers or other organs. 
Reniform. Kidney-shaped. 
Reserve Material. Starch, oil, proteid, or other materials stored for future use in 

seeds, stems, rhizomes, tubers, and other organs. 
Reserve Starch. Starch deposited in seeds, rhizomes, tubers, and other organs for 

future use (p. 643). 
Resins. Solid oxygenated hydrocarbons related to the essential oils, insoluble in water 

but soluble in ether, essential oils, etc. 
Respiration. The oxidation of organic matter in the leaf with exhalation of carbonic 

acid (p. 28). 
Reticulated. Netted. 
Reticulated Vessels. With thickenings forming ret'culations. Intermediate forms 

occur between these and spiral vessels. 
Revolute. Rolled longitudinally on the under side from both margins. 
Rhizomes, or Rootstocks. Stems or branches growing beneath or partly covered by 

the soil. 
Sagittate. Arrow-shaped; with lobes at the base turned downwards. 



GLOSSARY. 683 

Scalariform Vessels With transversely arranged ribs in rows like the rounds of a 

ladder (Fig. 6). 
Sclerenchyma. A tissue with thickened and lignified walls, such as stone cells and 

bast fibers. 
Sclerotic Cells. See Stone Cells. 
Sclerotium, pi. Sclerotia. A compacted mass of sterile hypha? forming the resting stage 

of certain fungi (p. 164; Fig. 141). 
Scutellum. A shield-like sucker (cotyledon) on the side of the embryo in grasses 

(p. 61; Fig. 62). 
Secondary Cortex. The corte.x formed by the phellogcn outside of the primary corte.x. 
Seed. The fertilized and matured ovule. 
Seed Coat. See Spermoderni. 
Sepals. See Calyx. 

Serrate. With margin having sharp teeth pointed forwards. 
Sieve Plates. The perforated plates forming the cross partitions of sieve tubes and 

occurring also on the side walls. 
Sieve Tubes. The characteristic elements of the phloem, consisting of soft tubes with 

perforated cross partitions (p. 23; Figs. 6 and 25). 
Silica Cells. Conical cells, corresponding to hairs, found on the epidermis of the 

glumes and palets of certain cereals (p. 62; Fig. 45). 
Silicle. A short silique. 
Silique. The pod of the Crucijerce, opening from below by two longitudinal valves, 

leaving the seeds attached to the placentae. 
Sinuous, or Sinuate. With deeply wavy margins. 
Sinus. A cove or re-entrant angle. 
Spathe. A large bmct encircling a flower cluster. 
Spatulate. With rounded apex and narrow, tapering base. 
Spermoderm, Testa, or Seed Coat. That portion of the skin or shell of a seed 

developed from the integuments of the ovule (p. 37). 
Sphacelia, the active stage of ergot (p. 164). 
Spike. A group of sessile flowers on a common axis. 

Spikelet. In grasses, a group of flowers subtended by two empty glumes (p. 60; Fig. 32). 
Spiral Vessels. Vessels with spiral thickenings, resembling a spiral spring (Fig. 6). 
Spongy Parenchyma. See Parenchyma. 

Spores. The reproductive bodies of cryptogams, analogous to the seeds of phanero- 
gams. 
Stamens. The male elements of the flower, made up of filament and anther. 
Starch (Latin Amylum). A carbohydrate with the formula (C5Hio05)n, occurring as 

grains insoluble in water. 
Stegmata, pi. Cells containing silicious bodies (Fig. 232). 
Stele. The central cylinder of a stem or root within the endodermis (p. 40). 
Stigma. The end portion of the pistil on which are deposited the pollen grains. 
Stoma, pi. Stomata; or Stomate, pi. Stomates. The openings or breathing pores of 

epidermal tissues, particularly of leaves (p. 29; Figs. 11 and 12). 
Stone Cells, or Sclerotic Cells. Sclerenchyma elements, either isodiametric or moder- 
ately elongated, with thick, porous walls (p. 21; Fig. 4). 



684 GLOSSARY. 



Stone Fruit. See Drupe. 

Style. The neck of the pistil connecting the stigma with the ovary. 

Subepidermal Layer. The layer of cells immediately underlying the epidermis. Here 

used chiefly for the subepidermal layer of seeds. 
Suberin. The characteristic constituent of cork tissues. 
Subtend. To extend underneath. 

Sucrose, or Cane Sugar. Ordinary sugar with the formula Ci2HjoOii. 
Superior. Growing above some other organ. A suj^erior calyx is grown to the ovar\ 

i.e. adnate. A superior ovary is free from the perianth. 
Suture. A seam of union, or line of dehiscence. 
Tannins. Colorless astringent substances, becoming brown on drying, which are 

colored blue or green by iron salts. 
Testa. See Spcrmodcrm. 
Terrete. Circular in cross section. 
Tracheae. See Vessels. 
Tracheids. Elongated, lignified cells of the xylem, distinguished from vessels by 

their cross partitions (Fig. 232). 
Transitory Starch. Starch temporarily deposited in an organ (p. 643). 
Transpiration. Exhalation of water through the leaf. 
Trichomes. See Hairs. 
Tube Cells. Longitudinally arranged vermiform cells, especially those forming the 

endocarp of cereals (p. 62; Fig. 36). 
Tuber. A thickened portion of a subterranean stem. 
Twin Cells. Pairs of oval or crescent-shaped cells found on the epidermis of the 

glumes and palets of certain cereals (p. 62; Fig. 45). 
Ventral Side. The inner side, facing the axis. 
Versatile. Swinging freely on its support. 
Vessels, or Tracheas. The lignified ducts or tubes of a fibro-vascular bundle, di5- 

tinguished from tracheids by the absence of transverse partitions (p. 22; Figs. 6 

and 25). 
Vittae. Oil ducts of umbelliferous fruits (p. 549). 
Volatile Oils. See Essential Oils. 
Water Pores, or Water Stomata. Epidermal openings situated at the ends of the nerves 

of leaves, through which water is discharged. 
Wavy. Curving gendy in and out. 
Xylem, Wood, or Hadrome. The portion ot a fibro-vascular bundle containing th& 

vessels and tracheids (p. 22; Figs. 6, 231, and 232). 



i 



INDEX. 



AbientiuecF, 316 
Acarits jariiue, 50 

pliimiger, 50 
Accompanying cells, 29 
Acer Negundo, 477 
Accrdcecp, 477 
Acetic acid, 8 
Acid, acetic, 8 

hydrochloric, 9 
nitric, 9 
picric, 25 
Acorn, 302 

coffee, 305 
flour, 306 
shells, 306 
Aconis Calamus, 608 
Adonis cestivalis, 154 
Flam me a, 154 
Adzuki bean, 241 
Aerial stems, 39 
.-Esculiis Hippocastanum, 657 
Africanischer Nussbohnen-Kaffee, 436 
Agar-agar, 322 
Agaricined', 423 
Agiriciis campcstris, 423 
Aggregate fruit, 33 
Aglaja odorata, 452 
Agroslemma Githago, 145, 148 
Akebia leaves, 478 
Akebia qiiinata, 478 
Albumen fixative, Meyer's, 17 
Alcanna tincture, 8, 26 
Alcohol, 8 
Alcohol-hydrochloric acid test of flour, 

Vogl's, 53 
Aleclorolophus hirsidur, 145 
Aleiirites Moluccaua, 222 

triloba, 222 
Aleurone grains, 24 
Alfalfa, 265 
Alkali, ID, 16 
Alkaloidal products, 427 
Alkaloids, 25 
Allerwelts-Kaffee, 436 



Allium Schcenoprasum, 627 
Allspice, 526 

ground, 530 
Almond, t,?,?, 

cake, 337 
coffee, 436 
flour, 337 
paste, 337 
shells, 337 
Alpiuia calcarata, 606 
Gala II ga, 606 
officitiariim, 606 
Alstoma Iheajoniiis, 483 
Alstrcemeria pallida, 669 
Amanita biilbosa, 423 

plialloides, 423 
Amaryllidece, 669 
Ammonia-water, 8 
Ammoniacal copper solution, 10 
Amomum Cardamomum, 542 
maximum, 542 
subulalum, 542 
xanthioiJcs, 542 
Amorphophallus sp., 669 
Anacardiacea', 315, 669 
Ananassa saliva, 395 
And-ropogon Sorghum, 97, 104 

var. durr :, 104 
var. saccharatus, 103 
var. tcchnicus, 98 
Anethum graveolens, 564 
Angiosperms, wood of, 42 
Augrecum jragrans, 4S3 
Anguillula tritici, 50 
Aniline dyes, 24, 320, 413, 522 
Anise, 558 
Annual stems, 39 
Annular vessels, 22 
Anthers, 31 

Anthoxanthum odoratum, 273 
Apium graveolens, 565 
Apple, 323 

pomace, 327 
preserves, 327 

68s 



686 



INDEX. 



Apricot, 339 

compared with almond, peach, and 

plum, 336 
preserves, 340 
Aquijoliacece, 483 
AracecB, 608, 666, 669 
Arachis hypogcea, 266 
\rata's wool test, 413, 522 
Araticaria sp., 669 
Araucariacecr, 669 
Arenga saccharijera, 667 
Arillode, 38 
Arillus, 37 
Arrowroot, Brazilian, 665 

East India, 662 

Guiana, 395, 658, 663 

Portland, 666 

Queensland, 662 

Tahiti, 667 

tous les mois, 662 

West India, 660 
Artemisia vulgarh, 619 
Artichoke, Jerusalem, 416 
Artificial flavors in jam, etc., 320 
ArtocarpecF, 386, 659 
Arlocarpus incisa, 659 
Arum starch, 666 
Arum esculeiitum, 666 
Italiciim, 666 
maculalum, 666 
Asci, 420 
Ascomycetes, 420 
Ash leaves, 462 

mountain, 463 
Asi-rai, 183, 188 
A spent/a odorata, 273 
Asphodeliis tenuijolius, 187 
Assimilation, 28 
Astragalus, 264 

baelicus, 264, 436 
Aiirantiacecr, 452 
Autumn morel, 423 
Avena jatiia, iii, 145, 146 
orientalis, 1 1 1 
saliva, in 
Awns, 61 
Ayer's hygienic substitute for coffee, 436 

Babiana a urea, 632 
Balsam, Canada, in xylol, 8 

mounting in, 19 
Bamihl's test of flour, 70 
Banana, 393 

flour, 395 
starch, 394, 658 
Barharea vulgaris, 193 
Bark, 38, 40 
Barks, microscopic elements of, 41 

used as spices, 585 
Barley, 80 

by-products, 85 

farina, 85 

flour, 85 



Barley, pearl, 85 

products, 84 
roasted, 85 
Basidiomycetes, 420 
Bast, 22, 41 

fibers, 21, 23 
Batatas edttlis, 665 
Batavia caasia, 586, 589 
Bayberry, 579 
Bay-leaf, 616 
Bayrischer Kaffee, 436 
Bean, adzuki, 241 

black-eyed, 247 
broad, 250 
carob, 275 

Chickasaw Lima, 258 
China, 247 
common, 238 
Dutch case-knife, 240 
Egyptian, 249 
horse, 250 
hyacinth, 249 
Jack, 258 
Lima, 241 
Sieva, 241 
soja, 248 
soy, 248 
Spanish, 240 
Tonka, 273 
Tonquin, 273 
Windsor, 250 
Bean-tree starch, 658 
Bed straws, 145, 161 
Beech-nut, 307 

cake, 308, 309 
Beet, 417 
Beneke's chloroform test of flour, 53 

method for clearing, 172 
Benzoic acid in fruit, 322 
BerthoUetia excel sa, 312 
no'idis, 312 
Beta vulgaris, 417 
Bi-collateral bundles, 39 
Bijora radians, 145, 159 
Bindweed, black, 138, 145, 187 

small, 145, 157 
Black bindweed, 138, 145, 187 
caraway, 156 
currant, 362 

preserves, 363 
mustard, 180 
pea, 247 
pepper, 507 

ground, 507 
raspberry, 354 
walnut, 298 
Black-eyed bean, 247 
Blackberry, 354 

preserves, 356 
Blue lupine, 255 
Blueberry, 370 

leaves, 480 
preserves, 372 



INDEX. 



687 



Boletus biilhosiis, 424 

edulis, 424 
Bomarea sp., 669 
Bombacecr, 211 
Borassus flabelliformis, 667 
Bordered pits, 42 
Bran, barley, 86 

maize, 71, 96 
rice, no 
rye, 79 
wheat, 71, 96 
Brassica Besseriaiia, 183 

campestris, var. Sarson, 179, 187 
dissect a, 189 
Iberifolia, 187 
jitncea, 183, 188 
Napiis, 185 

var. dichotoma, 188 
nigra, 180 
Rapa, 187, 419 
riigosa, 188 
Sinapistrum, 182, 184 
Brazilian arrowroot, 665 
Brazilnut, 312 
Bread, 56 

Breadfruit starch, 659 
Breakfast foods, 70, 116 
Brewers' grains, 85 
Brick tea, 452 
Broad bean, 250 
BromeliacecF, 395 
Bromus secalinus, 130, 145 
Broom corn, 97 
Bryonia epigcra, 670 
Buckwheat, common, 132 
flour, 137 
grits, 137 
hulls, 137 
middlings, 137 
products, 137 
starch, 135, 654 
Tartary, 138 
Buckwheats, 132 
Bulbs, 43 

Bundle zone, 40, 45 

Bundles, fibro-vascular, 22, 30, 39, 44, 45 
bi-collateral, 39 
collateral, 39, 44 
concentric, 44 
radial, 45 
Buttercup, 145 

fruit, 153 
Butternut, 298 
By-products, barley, 85 
brewery, 58 
buckwheat, 137 , 
distillery, 58 
glucose, 58 
maize, 96 
oat, 116 
rye, 79 
starch, 58 



Cadelle, 50 

Ccvsalpiiiia pulcherrima, 436 

CcEsalpiiiicir, 233 

Cafe de Rheims, 436 

Caillettet's chloroform test of flour, 53 

Cake, almond, 337 

beechnut, 308, 309 

black mustard, 182 

Brazilnut, 314 

candlenut, 222 

cocoanut, 289 

cottonseed, 209, 210 

false flax, 191 

hazelnut, 311 

hemp-seed, 216 

linseed, 204 

madia, 199 

niger seed, 200 

palm, 292 

poppy seed, 226 

pumpkin seed, 405 

rape, 186 

sesame, 219 

sunflower, 197 

white mustard, 179 
Calamus root, 608 
Calandra granaria, 50 

oryza, 50 
Calcium carbonate, 21, 27 

oxalate, 21, 2S, 26 
Calendula officinalis, 627 
Caltha palustris, 640 
Calyx, 30 

Cambiform cells, 22, 41 
Cambium, 39, 40, 45 
Camelina saliva, 186, 189 
Camellia leaves, 467 
Camellia Japonica, 467 

Thea, 452 
Camera lucida, 7 
Canada balsam in xylol, 8 

mounting in, 19 
Canavalia ensiformis, 2^8 
obtusifolia, 258 
Candlenut, 222 
Cane sugar, 25 
Canella bark, 597 
Canella alba, 597 
Canellacece, 597 
Canna starch, 662 
Canna Achiras, 662 

coccinea, 662 

edulis, 662 

Indica, 662 
Cannabinecp, 212 
Cannabis saliva, 212 

var. Indica, 212 
Canton cassia, 585 
Cape saffron, 631 
Caper fruits, 640 
Capers, 639 

German, 640 
Capparidacecp, 639 



688 



INDEX. 



Capparis spinosa, 639 

Capraria biflora, 483 

Caprifig, 386 

Capsella Bursa-Pastoris, 186, 191 

Capsicum annuum, 515 

jastigiatiim, 515, 523 
jriitescens, 515, 523 
minimum, 523 
Caraway, 555 

black, 156 
Cardamoms, 542 

Ceylon, 547 
Malabar, 542 
Carob bean, 275 
Carrot, 418 

Carthamus tinctorius, 629 
Carmn Carvi, 555 
Caruncle, 38 
Carya alba, 299 

olivcFJormis, 298 
CaryophyllacecE, 148 
Caryophyllaceous seeds, 148 
Caryophyllus aromaticus, 632 
Caryota urens, 667 
Cassava starch, 664 
Cassia, 585 

buds, 591 
coffee, 262 
ground, 590 
lignea, 585 
vera, 586 
Cassia occidentalis, 262, 436 

sophora, 436 
Castanea-nut, 312 
Castanea crenata, 299 
saliva, 299 

var. Americana, 299 
Castanospermum Australe, 658 
Castor bean, 220 

pomace, 169, 220 
Cathartus advena, 50 

gemallatus, 50 
Catsup, tomato, 413 
Cattle foods, condimental, 499 

methods of exami- 
nation of, 500 
cereal, 57 

methods of examination 

ol", 59 
Caucasian tea, 481 
Cayenne pepper, 523 

ground, 525 
Ceanothus Americauus, 483 
Ceibo pentandra, 211 
Celery seed, 565 
Cells, accompanying, 29 

cross, 62 

guard, 29 

palisade, 29, 206, 233 

tube, 62 
Cellulose, 20 
Cembra pine, 316 
Centaurea Cyanus, 145, 160 



Ceratonia, 233 

Siliqua, 275 
Cereal cattle foods, 5 7 

methods of examination 

of, 59 
Cereals, 60 

microscopic characters of, 62 
analytical keys to, 63 
Ceylon cardamom, 547 
cinnamon, 593 
Chcrtochloa glauca, 124 
viridis, 118 
Chaff, 58 
Chalaza, 35 

Chamcpnerium angustifolium, 459 
Charlock, 146, 182, 184, 186 
Chemical examination 
of cereal cattle foods, 59 
of condimental cattle and poultry foods, 

500 
of flour and meal, 54 
of fruit products, 321 
of oil-seed products, 1 70 
of spices and condiments, 496 
ChcuopodiacecF, 417 
Chcuo podium ambrosioides, 483 
Cherry, 341 

leaves, 468 
Mazzard, 341 
Morello, 341 
Chess, 130, 145 
Chestnut, 299 

meal, 301 
shells, 302 
starch, 301, 656 
Chick pea, 256 
Chickasaw Lima bean, 258 
Chicorium Intybus, 438 
Chicory, 438 
Chili sauce, 320 
Chillies, 523 
China bean, 247 
cassia, 585 
Chloral hydrate solution, 8, 16 
Ch/oraiithus inconspicuus, 452 
Chloroform, 8 

test of flour, Beneke's, 53 
Caillettet's, 53 
Chlorophyl grains, 23, 29, 30 
Chloroplasts, 23 
Chlorzinc iodine solution, 8 
Chocolate, 442, 447 
malt, 449 
milk, 449 
sweet, 448 
Choiromyces mceandriform-is, 422 
Chromatophores, 23 
Chromoplasts, 24 
Cicer ariet inum , 256 
Cinnamomtim aromaticum, 585 
Burmanni, 586 
Cassia, 585, 591 
Ceylonicum, 593 



INDEX. 



689 



Cliinamommn Culilawan, 596 

Loiireirii, 586 
Cinnamon, 585, 590 

Ceylon, 593 
Citric acid, 320 
Citron, 381 

CitniUus vulgaris, 408 
Citrus fruits, 376 

Citrus Aurantium, var. amara, 376 
var. Sinetisis, 376 
medica, var. genuina, 38 1 
var. Limon, 381 
Clark's phosphi cereal nervine coffee, 436 
Claviceps purpurea, 164 
Clearing, 16 
Cleavers, 161 
Clove bark, 594 
fruit, 637 
stems, 636 
Cloves, 632 

ground, 636 
Cob meal, 95 
Cobnut, 309 
Coca, 485 

Cockle, 54, 145, 148 
Cockle-wheat, 50 
Codococcus, 295 
Cocoa, 442 

bean, 442 
shells, 448 
Cocoanut, 281 

cake, 289 
shells, 289 
shredded, 289 
Cocos nucijera, 281 
Coffea Arabica, 427, 466 

Liberica, 438 
Coffee, 425 

acorn, 305 
adulterants of, 435 
artificial, 435- 
astragalus, 264 
cassia, 262 

fig, 389 

ground, 434 , 

hulls, 434, 435 

leaves, 466 

Liberian, 438 

Mogdad, 262 

Soudan, 257 

substitutes, 435 

Swedish continental, 264 
Cola acuminata, 452 
Cold-water test of oil-seeds, 170 
Collateral bundles, 39, 44 
Collections, 11 
Collenchym, 20 
CoUenchyma, 20, 21 

Collin & Perrot's method for oil-seeds, 170 
Colocasia antiquarum, 669 
Color test of flour, 52 
Commercial powders, 14 
starches, 643 



Composite, 160, 193, 416, 43S, 440, 619, 627, 

629 
Composite oil fruits, 193 
Compound fruit, ;^^ 

microscope, 6 
Condimental cattle and poultry foods, 499 

methods of examination of, 500 
Condiments, see Spices 
Conium maculatum, ^60 
Convolvulacecc, 157, 665 
Convolvulus arvensis, 145, 157 
Copernica cerijera, 292 
Copper solution, ammoniacal, 10 
Coriander, 562 
Coriandrum sativum, 562 
Cork, 40 

cells, 22 
Corms, 43 
Corn bran, 71 

cob in wheat bran, 71 
crisp, 96 
flower, 145, 160 
Jerusalem, 104 
Kaffir, 104 
poppy, 145 
starch, 96, 651 
Cornichons de capricr, 640 
Corolla, 30 
Cortex, 39, 45 

caryophyllata, 596 
cassicC caryophyllatus, 594 
primary, 40 
secondary, 40 
Corylus Americana, 309 
Avellana, 309 
Califoniica, 309 
colurna, 309 
pontica, 309 
rostrata, 309 
tubulosa, 309 
Corypha cerijera, 292 
Cotton seed, 205 

and Kapok seed, comparative 

table of, 211 
Sea Island, 205 
cake, 209, 210 
hulls, 210 
meal, 210 
Cotyledons, 38, 
Coumarin, 274 
Coumarouna odorata, 273 

oppositifolia, 273 
Cover-glasses, 7 
Cow herb, 145, 151 
pea, 247 

wheat, 54, 145, 156 
Cowberry, 366 
Crab-apple, 324 
Cracked corn, 95 
Cranberr)', 366 

preserves, 370 
Cream of wheat, 71 
Cress, winter, 193 



690 



INDEX. 



Crocoshia aurea, 632 
Crocus sativus, 623 
vernus, 623 
Cross-sections, 12 
Crown allspice, 526 
Crucifercr, 172, 419 
Cruciferous Seeds, 172 

analytical key to, 174 
microscopic characters of, 
172 
Crude fiber method, 17, 60 
Crystal clusters, 26 
fibers, 42 

rosettes, 24, 25, 26 
sand, 26, 27 
Crystals, single, of calcium oxalate, 25, 26 
Crystalloids, 24 
Cubebs, 513 
Cucumber, 406 
Cucumis Melo, 407 

sativus, 406 
Cucurbit fruits, 401 
Cucurbit a maxima, 406 

Pepo, 402 
CucurbitacecF, 401, 670 
Cumin, 560 

Cuminum Cyminiim, 560 
Cuoxam, 10 
Cup nuts, 299 
Cuprammonia, 10 
Cnpulifercr, 299 
Curcuma starch, 662 
Curcuma angustijolia, 662 

Leucorrhiza, 662 

longa, 602, 662 

rubescens, 662 

Zedoaria, 603, 605 
Currant, black, 362 

red, 357 
Currants, Xanti, 382, 385 
Cuticle, 21, 29 
Cutin, 21 

Cycas revoliita, 667 
Cydonia vulgaris, 331 
Cyperus esculentus, 436 
Cystoliths, 27 
Cytoplasm, 23 

Dandelion, 440 

Darnel, 54, 125, 145, 146, 251 

fungus layer in, 129 
Date, 390 

stones, 392 
Datel-Kaffee, 435 
Daucus Carota, 158, 418 
Decorticated white pepper, 509 
Delphinium Consolida, 145, 155 

Staphysagria, 155 
Deutscher Kaffee, 436 

Diastase method for flour, Steinbusch's, 55 
Dicvpcllium carvophyllatum, 594 
Dill', 564 
DioscoracecE, 663 



Dioscorea aculeata, 663 

alata, 663 

glabra, 663 

Japonica, 663 

nummular ia, 663 

sativa, 663 

tomentosa, 663 
Dipteryx odorata, 273 
Discomycetes, 422 
Dissected mustard, 189 
Dolichos bulhosus, 670 
. Lablab, 249 

Sinensis, 247 
Domkaffee, 436 
Dracontium sp., 669 
Drupes, 323 
Ducts, 22 
Dulcit, 25 
Durrha, 104 

Dutch case-knife bean, 240 
Dyes, in jam, etc., 320 

East India arrowroot, 662 
Echocerus cornutus, 50 

maxillosus, 50 
Egyptian bean, 249 
Elceis Guineensis, 290 
Elaphomyces, 422 

Elements, principal histological, 20 
Elettaria Cardamom um, 542, 547 
Eleusine Coracana, 670 
Embedding, 13 
Embryo, 35, 38, 61 

sac, 35 
Emergences, 29 
Emmer, 75 
Endocarp, 35 
Endodermis, 39, 45 
Endosperm, 35, 38, 61 
Endothecium, 31 
English plantain, 163 
walnuts, 296 
Ephestia Kuehniella, 50 
Epicarp, 35 
Epidermal tissues, 21 
Epidermis, 21, 29, 30, 39, 45 
Epilobium angustifolium, 459 

hirsutum, 461 
Episporium, 165 
Ergot, 51, 54, 164 
Ericacecp, 366, 480, 481 
Ericaceous fruits, 366 
Eriodendron anjrartuosum, 211 
Eritrichium gnaphaloides, 483 
Eriica sativa, 189 
Ervum Lens, 245 
Erysimum orientale, 186, 192 
Erythrouium Dens-canis, 670 
Erythroxylacecr, 485 
Erytkroxylon Coca, 485 
Essential oils, 26 
Ether, 8 
Eugenia caryophyllata, 632 



INDEX. 



691 



Eitphorbiacecr, 220, 222, 664 
European walnut, 295 
Eye-pieces, 6 

Faba vulgaris, 250 
Facing of tea, 456 
Fagacea, 477 
Fagi-Kadsura-akebi, 478 
Fagopyrum esculentum, 132, 654 
Tartaricum, 132, 138 
Fagiis ferruginea, 307 

sylvatica, 307 
False flax, 186, 189 
Fats, 26 
Fatty oils, 26 
Fecule de pia, 667 
Fehling solution, 8, 25 
Feigenkaffee, 436 
Fennel, 552 
Fenugreek, 259 
Ferric chloride, S 

Fibro-vascular bundles, 22, 30, 39, 44, 45 
bi-collateral, 39 
collateral, 39, 44 
concentric, 44 
radial, 45 
Fie us Carica, 386 
Field pennvcress, 192 
Fig, 386 

coffee, 389 
goat, 386 
preserves, 389 
Figine, 436 
Filbert, 309 

Fischer Mills malt coffee, 436 
Fixative, Meyer's albumen, 17 
Flag, sweet, 608 
Flour, 49 

acorn, 306 
almond, 337 
banana, 395 
black mustard, 182 
buckwheat, 137 

prepared or self-raising, 

137 
cryptogamic contaminations of, 5 1 
insect and other animal contamina- 
tions of, 50 
maize, 95 

methods of examination of, 52 
mineral adulterants of, 49 
pea, 243 
rice, no 
rye, 79 
wheat, 70 
white mustard, 179 
Flour-beetle, broad-horned, 50 
confused, 50 
rust red, 50 
slender-horned, 50 
small eyed, 50 
Flour-mitc, common, 50 
feathered, 50 



Flower, 30 

Flowers used as spices, 622 

Fwniculum capillaceioii, 552 

ditlce, 552 
Foramen, 35 
Force, 70 

Fould's wheat germ, 71 
Foxtail, green, 118 
yellow, 124 
Fragaria Chiloer.sis, 343 
vesca, 343, 471 
Virginiana, 343 
Frank -Kaffee, 436 
Franzosischer Kaffee, 436 
Fraxinus sp., 462 
French truffles, 420 
Fritillaria imperialis, 670 
Frucht-Kaffee, 436 
Fruit, 33, 319 

aggregate, 7,7, 
compound, 7,^ 
multiple, 33 
products, 319 

methods of examination of, 
320 
Fruits, citrus, 376 

cucurbit, 401 
ericaceous, 366 
miscellaneous, 382 
myrtaceous, 526 
rosaceous, 323 
saxifragaceous, 357 
solanaceous, 410, 515 
umbelliferous, 549 

analytical key to, 551 
comparative histology 

of, 550 
Fungi, 164, 410 

edible, 410 
Fungus impurities of grain, 164 

layer in darnel, 129 
Funiculus, 35 

Galangal, 606 
Galium Aparine, 161 
Gardenia florida, 4^2 
Gasteromycetes, 420, 422 
Gaylussacia resinosa, 373 
German millet, 118 

rape, 187 

soda coffee, 435 

truffles, 421 
Gesneracecr, ii-j 
Gherkin, 406 
Ginger, 599 

exhausted, 602 
ground, 602 
Glands, 21, 29, 30 
Globoids, 25 
Gloriosa superha, 670 
Glucosidcs, 25 
Glumes, empty, 60 

flowering, 60 



692 



INDEX. 



Gluten feed, 96 
meal, 96 
test of flour, 54 
Glycerine, 9 

gum, 9 

jelly, Kaiser's, 9 

mounting in, 18 
mounting in, 18 
Clycine hispida, 248 
Goat fig, 386 
Gonidia, 164 
Gooseberry, 363 

preserves, 365 
Gossypitini arboreum, 205 

barhadcuse, 205, 210 
herbaceiim, 205 
Graham flour, 70 
Grain, 49 
Grain-beetle, European, 50 

red or square-necked, 50 
saw-toothed, 50 
Grain-o, 436 
Gramineo', 60, 670 
Grape, 382 

pomace, 385 
preserves, 385 
Green foxtail, 1 18 
Grits, barley, 85 

buckwheat, 137 
spelt, 75 
wheat, 71 
Gromwell leaves, 458 
Ground substance, 24 
Guarana, 431 
Guard cells, 29 
Guiana arrowroot, 395, 663 

vanilla, 578 
Gnizoiia Abyssinica, 200 

oleijera, 200 
Gums, 23 
Guzerat Raps, 187 
Gymnosperms, wood of, 42 
Gyromitra esculenta, 422 

Hadrome, 22 
Hairs, 21, 29 

root, 45 
Hairy vetch, 252 
Hanover truflJes, 421 
Hazelnut, 309 

cake, 31 1 

meal, 31 1 

shells, 31 1 
Hcbebrand's method of clearing, 172 
Hclianthiis animus, 194 

tuberosus, 416 
Helvella Injida, 423 
Hemp, Indian, 212 
Hemp-seed, 212 
Herb patience, 622 
Hickory-nut, 299 
Hilum, 2>S 
Histological elements, jirincipal, 20 



Hollow seed, 139 

Homeopathischer Gesundheitskaflfee, 435 

Hominy, 96 

feed, 96 
Honey, 32 

pollen grains in, 32 
Hordeum sativum, 80 

var. disHchon, 80 
var. hexastichon, 80 
var. vidgarc, 80 
Horse bean, 230 
Horse-chestnut starch, 637 
Huckleberry, 373 

preserves, 376 
Hulls, bean, 240 

black mustard, 183 

buckwheat, 137 

coffee, 434, 435 

cottonseed, 210 

oat, 116 

rice, no 

white mustard, 179 
Hungarian grass, 118 
Hyacinth bean, 249 
Hydrangea leaves, 476 
Hydrangea Hortensia, 476 
Hydrochloric acid, concentrated, 9 

method for flour, 55 
Hygienischer Nahrkaff^ee, 435 
Hymenium, 420 
Hymenomycetes, 423 
Hypoderm, 33 
Hypoxidece, 670 
Hypoxis aiirea, 670 
Hyssop, 613 
Hyssopiis officinalis, 615 

Ilex Paragiiariensis, 483 
Illicinm religiosnm, 371, 572 

verum, 366 
Impregnating and embedding, 13 
Indian cassia, 386 

colza, 187 

hemp, 212 

mustard, 183, 1S8 

rape, 179 

brown, 188 
Integuments, j,k, 
Inulin, 23 
Inversion, 25 
Invert sugar, 25 
Iodine in potassium iodide, 9 

tincture, 9 

treatment with, 16 
I poma'a Batatas, 663 
Iridacecr, 623, 632 
Ivory-nut, 293 

Polynesian, 295 

Jack bean, 258 
Jamaica pepper, 326 
Jamaika-Kaftee, 433 
Jambosa Caryophylhts, 632 



INDEX. 



693 



Jams, 319 

adulterants of, 319 
Japanese potato, 415 
Jasminiim. 452 
Javelle water, 9 
Jerusalem artichoke, 416 

corn, 104 
Jesuit tea, 483 
J iiglaiidacece, 295 
J iiglans ciiierea, 298 

nigra, 298 

regia, 295 
Juniper berry, 582 
Juniperiis communis, 582 

Kaffir corn, 104 
Kaiser's glycerine jelly, 9 
Kanon, 435 
Kapok seed, 211 

and cottonseed, comparative 
table of, 211 
Kentucky coffee, 436 
Kneipp malt coffee, 436 
Kola nut, 452 
Kraft-Kaffee, 436 
Kraiinkia floribimda, 475 

La Guayra vanilla, 578 

Labarrafjue's solution, 9, 16 

Labiaicr, 415, 610, 612, 613, 615 

Lablab vulgaris, 249 

Labrador tea, 483 

Lagerheim's test for benzoic acid in fruit 

products, 321 
Lambert's hazelnut, 309 
Lantana pseudolliea, 483 
Lapisma saccharina, 50 
Lardizabalacece , 478 
Larkspur seed, 145, 155 
Latex tubes, 23 
Lauck's method for flour, 56 
Lauracecc, 579, 585, 594, 616 
Laurus cinnamomiim, 586 

nob His, 579, 616 
Leaf, 28 

Leaves used as spices, 610 
Ledum, 483 
Legumes, 233 

analytical key to, 235 

chief characters of, 235 

microscopic characters of, 2^^ 
Legumiuosce, 233, 670 
Lemon, 381 
Lens esculenta, 245 
Lentil, 245 

Leontodon Taraxacum, 440 
Lcpidium campestre, 186, 192 

sativum, 192 
Leptome, 22 
Leucoplasts, 23, 644 
Liberian coffee, 438 
Lie tea, 456 
Lignin, 20, 21 



Liliacecc, 670 
Lima bean, 241 
Linaceo', 202 
Linseed, 202 1 

cake, 204 
meal, 204 
Linum usitatissimum, 202 
Lithospermum arveiise, 145 

officinale, 458 
Lodicules, 61 

Lolium temulentum, 125, 145, 146, 251 
Long cardamom, 547 

pepper, 511 
Longitudinal sections, 12 
Louse seed, 155 
Lucerne, 265 
Lupine, blue, 255 

3-ellow, 253 

white, 255 
Lupinus alius, 255 

angustijolius, 255 

var. Icucospermus, 255 

lute us, 233 
Lycopersicum esculent urn, 410 
Lyperia crocea, 631 

Macaroni wheat, 65 

Macassar nutmeg and mace, 540 

Mace, Bombay, 540 

Macassar, 540 

true, 531 
Macerating mixture, Schultze's, 10 
Maceration, 15 
Madi, 197 
Madia seed, 197 
Madia sativa, 197 
Magnoliacece, 566 
Maize, 86 

bran, 96 

cake, 96 

cob, 52, 96 

flour, 96 

meal, 95 

products, 95 

silk, 626, 632 

smut, 166 

starch, 95, 651 

white milo, 104 

yellow milo, 104 
Malabar cardamom, 542 

cassia, =586 
Mah, 84 

chocolate, 449 
sprouts, 86 
Malta-Vita, 70 
Malto-Kaffee, 436 
Malvacecp, 205, 670 
Mangifera Indica, 669 
Mango, 669 
Manihot aipi, 664 

utilissima, 664 
Mannit, 25 
Maple leaves, 477 



694 



INDEX. 



Maranta starch, 660 
Maranta arundinacea, 660 
Marantacece, 660, 662 
Marigold flowers, 626, 627 
Marjoram, 612 
Marmalades, 319 

adulterants of, 319 
Marsh marigold, 640 
Mate, 483 

Meadowsweet leaves, 473 
Meal, bean, 239 

chestnut, 301 
corn and cob, 96 
cottonseed, 210 
hazelnut, 311 
linseed, 204 
maize, 95 
Meal-worm, dark, 50 

yellow, 50 
Mechanical stage, 7 
Medicago saliva, 265 
Medullary rays, 40 
Melampyrum arvense, 54, 145, 156 
Melilotin Kaffee, 436 
Melilotus officinalis, 273 
Melitose, 25 
Mesocarp, 35 
Mesophyl, 29 

Methods of examination, 1 2 
of cereal cattle foods, 59 
of flour, 52 
of fruit products, 320 
of meal, 52 

of oil-seed products, 1 70 
of powders, 14 

of spices and condiments, 496 
Metroxylon Koenigii, 667 
IcEve, 667 
Rumphii, 667 
Sagiis, 667 
Mexican allspice, 526 

tea, 483 
Meyer's albumen fixative, 17 
Micrometer, 6 
Micropyle, 37 
Microscope, compound, 6 

simple, 6 
Microscopic examination 
of cereal cattle foods, 59 
of condimental cattle and poultry foods, 

501 
of flour and meal, 54 
of fruit products, 321 
of oil -seed products, 171 
of spices and condiments, 497 
Microscopic mounts, 1 1 
Microtome, 7 

Middlings, buckwheat, 137 
rye, 79 
wheat, 71 
Milk chocolate, 449 
Millet, common, 116 
German, 118 



Millon's reagent, 9, 24 
Mogdad coffee, 262, 436 
Mokara Kaffee, 436 
Mokka-Sakka-Kaffee, 435 
Monarda, 483 
Moracecr, 464 
Morchella esculent a, 422 
Morels, 422 

Morphology of organs, 28 
Moms alba, 464 

nigra, 464 
Moth, Angoumois grain, 50 
Indian meal, 50 
meal snout-, 50 
Mediterranean flour, 50 
wolf, 50 
Mountain ash-leaves, 463 
Mounting in Canada balsam, 19 

in glycerine, 18 

in glycerine jelly, 18 

in water, 15 

permanent, 18 
Mounts, microscopic, 11 
Mulberry leaves, 464 
Multiple fruit, t,^ 
Musa sapientum, 393 

var. paradisiaca, 393 
Musacece, 393 
Mushrooms, 423 
Muskmelon, 407 
Mussaende Kaffee, 435 
Mustard, black, 180 

brown, 180 

dissected, 189 

flour, black, 182 
white, 179 

hedge, 186, 191 

hulls, black, 183 
white, 179 

Indian, 183, 188 

prepared, 183 

Sarepta, 182, 183 

treacle, 186, 192 

white, 176 

yellow, 176 
Mycelium, 164 
Myrica acris, 579 
Myristica argentea, 531, 540 

jragrans, 531 

Malabarica, 540 
Myristicacece, 531 
Myrosin cells, 179 
Myrtacece, 312, 526, 632 
Myrtaceous fruits, 526 
Myrtus Ugni, 483 

Naphthylene-blue method for flour, Vogl's, 

56 
Nasturtium, 640 
Nectaries, 30 
Negar-Kaffee, 436 
Negundo jraxinijolium, 477 
Neliimhium speciosum, 670 



INDEX. 



695 



New .era hygienic coffee, 436 
New Jersey tea, 483 
Nicotiana rustica, 486 

Tabacum, 486 
Nigclla arvensis, 156 
Niger seed, 200 
Nitric acid, concentrated, 9 
Nose-piece, 6 
Nucellar tissue, 38 
Nucellus, 35 
Nucleus, 23 
Nut-oil, 309 
Nutmeg and mace, 531 

Macassar, 540 
true, 531 
Nutritive layer, 37 
Nuts, 281 

miscellaneous, 312 
NymphcBacecr, 670 

Oak leaves, 477 
Oatmeal, 116 
Oats, III 

rolled, 116 
Objectives, 6 
QLnotherecp, 459 
Oil seeds, 169 

composite, 193 

cruciferous, 172 

methods of examination of, 170 

miscellaneous, 202 

products, 169 
Oil solvents, treatment with, 16 
Old grist-mill entire-wheat coffee, 436 
Olea Euro pea, 226 
OleacecB, 226, 462 
Olive, 226 
Olive-oil, 9 
Olive-pomace, 228 
Olive-stones, 228 
Orange, 376 

marmalade, 380 
OrchidacecB, 573 
Oriental pear, 328 
Origanum Majorana, 610 
Oryza sativa, 105, 652 
Osmanthus fragrans, 452 
Oswego tea, 483 
Ovary, 32 
Ovules, 32, 35 

Pachira aquatica, 670 
Pahara rai, 188 
Palai, 188 
Palangi, 188 
Palet, 60 

Palisade cells, 29, 233 
Palm cake, 2g2 
fruits, 281 

nut, 2QO 

vanilla, 579 
Palntce, 281, 3Q0 
Palortis rafzehurgl, 50 



Pancratium maritimum, 669 
Panicum miliaceum, 116, 124 
Pa paver Rhceas, 145, 627 
somnijerum, 223 
PapaveracecE, 223 
PapilionacecE, 233, 475, 640 
Paprika, 515, 626 

ground, 522 
Para-nut, 312 
Paraffine, 9 

bath, 7 

impregnating and embedding with, 

13 
Paraguay tea, 483 
Paraphyses, 422 
Parenchyma, 20 

spongy, 20, 21 
Parkia Ajricana, 257, 436 
biglandulosa, 670 
biglobosa, 436 
Roxburgii, 257 
Paullinia sorbilis, 45 1 
Pea, black, 247 
chick, 256 
cow, 247 
field, 242 
flour, 243 
garden, 242 
Peach, 337 

compared with almond, plum, and 

apricot, 336 
preserves, 339 
Peanut, 266 

butter, 272 
cake, 272 
shells, 272 
Pear, 328 

oriental, 328 
Pearl barley, 85 
Pecan nut, 298 
Penny-cress, 186, 192 
Peonia, 627 
Pepper, 502 

black, 507 
Cayenne, 523 
Jamaica, 526 
long, 5 1 1 
red, 523 
shells, 509 
white, 508 

decorticated, 509 
Peppergrass, wild, 186, 192 
Perennial roots, 45 
stems, 40 
Pericambium, 45 
Pericarp, 33, 61 
Pericycle, 40, 45 
Perigord truflSes, 420 
Perisperm, 35, 38 
Permanent mounting, 18 
Phaseolus lunatus, 241 

var. macrocarpus, 241 
muUiflorus, 240 



696 



INDEX. 



^ 



Phaseolus Mungo var. glaher, 241 

vulgaris, 238 
Phellogen, 40 
Phloem, 22, 40 
Phivnix dac'.ylijera, 390 
Phoroglucin tincture, 9 
Photomicrographic apparatus, 7 
Photosynthesis, 28 
Phytelephas macrocarpa, 293 
Picric acid, 25 
Pimenta acris, 526 

officinalis, 526 
Pimpinella Anisiim, 558 
Pine-nut, 316 
Pineapple, 395 
Piiius Cembra, 316 

var. Siberica, 316 

Piiiea, 316 
Piper Ciibcba, 513 

loiigum, 511 

nigrum, 502 

officinariim, 511 
Piperaceous fruits, 502 
Piperacece, 502 
Pistacia vera, 315 
Pistachio-nut, 315 
Pistil, 32 

Pisum arvense, 242 
sativum, 242 
Pith, 40, 45 
Pits, bordered, 42 
Plantaginacece, 163 
Plantago lanceolata, 163 

major, 163 
Plantain, 163 
Plasmon Chocolate, 449 
Plastids, 23 

Plodia inter p an ctella, 50 
Plum, 340 

compared with almond, peach, and 
apricot, 336 

preserves, 341 
Plumule, 38, 61 
Poivre de Thebet, 526 
Polarizing aj)paratus, 7 
Pollen, 31, 32, 35 
sacs, 31 
tubes, 35 
PolygonacecF, 132, 621 
Polygonaceous seeds, miscellaneous, 144 
Polygonum aviculare, 146 

Convolvulus, 138; 145, 187 
Polynesian ivory-nut, 295 
PolyporecF, 424 
Pomace, apple, 327 
castor, 220 
grape, 385 
olive, 229 
Pomes, 323 
Poppy seed, 223 
Portland arrowroot, 666 
Postum cereal coffee, 436 
Potash solution, 9 



Potassium iodide, iodine in, 9 
Potato, 414 

Japanese, 415 
starch, 659 
Poultry foods, condimental, 499 
Powders, commercial, 14 

examination of, 14 
Preliminary examination 
of cereal cattle foods, 59 
of condimental cattle and poultry foods,5oo 
of flour and meal, 52 
of fruit products, 320 
of oil-seed products, 1 70 
of spices and condiments, 496 
Prepared mustard, 183 
Preservatives, chemical, in jam, etc., 320 
Primary cortex, 40 
Proteids, 24 
Protoplasm, 23 
Prunus amygdalus, t,t,t, 
Armeniaca, 339 
avium, 341, 468 
cerasus, 341 
domestica, 340 
Persica, 337 
spinosa, 469 
tri flora, 340 
Psalliota campestris, 423 
Psoralia glandnla, 483 
Pterocarpus santalinus, 44 
Pueraria Thunbergiana, 670 
Pulps, 15 
Pumpkin, 402 
Punica granatum, 626 
Pyralis farinalis, 50 
Pyrenomycetes, 164 
Pyrus Aucuparia, 463 
baccata, 324 
communis, 328 
Cydonia, 331 
Mains, 323 
Sinensis, 328 

Queensland arrowroot, 662 
Quercus Cerris, 302 

pedunculuta, 302, 477 
pubesccns, 302 
sessiliflora, 302, 477 
Quince, 331 

Radial bundles, 45 
Radicle, 38, 61 
Radish, wild, 186, 193 
Rafinose, 25 
Raisins, 385 

Ralston cereal coffee, 436 
Ranunculacece, 152, 640 
Ranunculaceous seeds, 152 
Ranunculus arvensis, 141^, 153 
Rape, brown Indian, 188 

common, 185 

German, 187 

palai, 188 



INDEX. 



697 



Raphanus Raplianistnim, 186, 193 
Raphe, 35, 37 
Raphides, 26, 27 
Raspberry, black, 354 
red, 349 

preserves, 353 
Rations Coffee, 436 
Razor, section, 6 
Reagent bottles, 7 
Reagents, 8 

treatment with, 15 
Receptacle, 33 
Red currant, 357 

preserves, 361 
raspberry, 349 

preserves, t,^t, 
sandalwood, 44 
Reserve material, 36, 37 
Resins, 26 
Respiration, 28 
Reticulated vessels, 22 
Rhizomes, 43 

used as spices, 599 
Rhizopogon, 422 

Ribes Grossularia, 363 , 

nigrum, 362 
oxyacanthoides, 363 
rubrum, 357 
Rice, 105 

bran, no 
by-products, no 
flaked, no 
flour, no 
hulls, no 

mill-products of , no 
starch, 109, no, 652 
Ricinus communis, 220 
Rolled wheat, 70 
Root, 44 

annual, 44 
hairs, 45 
stalks, 43 
Roots and tubers used as vegetables, 414 
Roots, perennial woody, 45 
Rosa canina, 342, 470 
Rosacea", 323, 463, 468, 470, 471, 473 
Rosaceous fruits, 323 
Rose fruit, 342 

leaves, 470 
Rowan leaves, 463 
Rubiacetp, 161, 427, 466 
Rubus fructicosiis, 354 
Idceus, 349 
nigrobaccus, 354 

var. sativus, 354 
occidentalis, 354 
strigosus, 349 
villosus, 354 
Riimex acelosa, 622 
patienlia, 622 
sciitatus, 621 
Rtitaccir, 376 
Rye, 77 



Rye bran, 79 

by-products, 79 
flour, 79 
middlings, 79 
products, 78, 79 
smut, 166 

Sacca-Coffee, 434 

Saccharine, 320 

Safflower, 626, 629 

Saffron, 623 1 

cape, 631 
South African, 632 

Safranin solution, 10, 17 

Sage, 610 

Sageretia theezans, 483 

Sago, 667 

Sagus IcFvis, 667 

Rumphii, 667 

Saigon cassia, 586, 589 

Saladinkaffee, 436 

Salicylic acid, 320 

Salix, 461 

Salvia officinalis, 610 

Sandalwood, red, 44, 495, 626 

Sapindacew, 451, 657 

Saponaria officinalis, 151 
Vaccaria, 151 

Sarepta mustard, 182, 183 

Sarkogen layer of strawberry, 345 

Sat lire ja hortensis, 613 

Savory, 613 

Sawdust, 42, 43, 52 
in flour, 52 

SaxifragacecF, 357, 476 

Saxifragaceous fruits, 357 

Scalariform vessels, 22 

Scarlet runner, 240 

Schimper's scum method for flour, 55 

Schultze's macerating mixture, 10 

Schweitzer's reagent, 10 

Sclerenchyma, 20 

fibers, 21 

Scleroderma vulgare, 422 

Sclerotium, 164 

Scolymus Hispanicus, 626 

Screenings, 145 

European, 146 
American, 146 
uses of, 146 
examination of, 148 
botanical analyses of, 147 

Scrophulariacea-, 156, 458, 631 

Scum method for flour, Schimper's, 55 

Scutellum, 61 

Sea Island cotton, 205 

Secalc cere ale, "j"] 

Sechiiim edule, 670 

Secondary cortex, 40 

Section razor, 6 

Sections, cross-, 12 

longitudinal, 12 
surface, 13 



69S 



INDEX 



Sections, tangential, 12 
Seed, 33 

coat, 37 
Sesame, common, 217 

black, 219 
Sesamum Indicum, 217 
radiatum, 219 
Setaria glaiica, 124, 560 
Italica, 118 
pa 11 is, 118, 124 
viridis, 118, 560 
Shagbark hickory-nut, 299 
Shells, acorn, 306 
almond, 337 
Brazil-ifiit, 314 
chestnut, 302 
cocoa, 448 
cocoanut, 289 
hazelnut, 311 
nutmeg, 539 
pepper, 309 
walnut, 297 
Shepherd's purse, 186, 191 
Shikimi, 572 

Shredded cereal coffee, 436 
cocoanut, 289 
wheat, 70 
Sicyos angulatiis, 6'jci 
Sieva bean, 241 
Sieve plates, 23 

tubes, 22, 23 
Silica, 21, 27 
Silk-cotton trees, 211 
Silvanus surin amen sis, 50 
Simple microscope, 6 
Sinapis alba, 176 

arvensis, 184, 186 
dissecta, 189 
glauca, 187 
Sisymbrium officinale, 186, 191 

Sophia, 186, 191 
Sitotroga cerealclla, 50 
Slides, 7 
Sloe leaves, 469 
Smut, maize, 166 

rye, 166 
Smuts, 51, 165 

loose, 166 
stinking, 166 
Snap beans, 238 
Soap wort, 151 
Soda solution, 10 
Sodium benzoate, 320 

phosphate, solution, 25 
Soja bean, 248 
Soja hispida, 248 
Solanacccr, 410, 414, 486, 515 
Solanaceous fruits, 410, 515 
Solanum Lycopersicum, 410 

tuberosum, 414, 659 
Sorbus Aucuparia, 463 
Sorghum Cnffrorum, 97 
cernuum, 97 



Sorghum nigrum, 97 

saccharatum, 97 
vulgare, 97 
Sorrel, 621 

Soudan coffee, 257, 436 
South African saffron, 632 
Soy bean, 248 
Spanish bean, 240 

hazelnut, 309 
pepper, 515 
Spartium scoparium, 640 
Spelt, 73 

Spergula arvensis, 152 
Spermoderm, 35, 37 
Sphacelia, 164 
Spices and condiments, 493 
adulterants of, 494 

inorganic, 495 
organic, 495 
analytical key to, 498 
identification of, 495 
impurities of, 493 
insects in, 494 

methods of examination of, 496 
chemical, 500 
microscopical, 497 
preliminary, 500 
weed seeds in, 494 
Spircea Ulmaria, 473 
Spiral vessels, 22 
Spongy parenchyma, 20, 21 
Spring morel, 422 
vetch, 251 
Sprouted grain, 51 

in flour, 51 
Spurrey, 152 
Squash, 406 
Stachys Sieboldii, 415 
Stachytarpheta Jamaicensis, 4S3 
Staining, 17 
Stamens, 31 
Standard materials, 1 1 
Star-anise, 566 

compared with Shikimi, 572 
Starch, arum, 666 

banana, 395, 646, 658 

bean, 239 

bean-tree, 658 

bread-fruit, 659 

buckwheat, 135, 654 

canna, 662 

cassava, 664 

chemical composition of, 645 

chestnut, 301, 656 

cockle, 150, 646 

Colchicum, 646 

commercial, 648 

curcuma, 646, 662 

Erythronium, 669, 670 

Euphorbia, 646 

feed, 96 

formation of, by leucoplasts, 643 

horse-chestnut, 657 



I 
I 






INDEX. 



699 



Starch, Iris, 646 

leguminous, 235, 655 
maize, 95, 646, 651 
maranta, 660 
microscopic characters of, 645 

examination of, 649 
miscellaneous, 669 
oat, 115, 646 
pea, 243, 646 
potato, 414, 646, 659 
process of manufacture of, 64S 
reserve, 643 
rice, 109, 652 
sago, 646, 667 
sweet-potato, 665 
Tacca, 667 
transitory, 643 
uses of, 649 

wheat, 69, 646, 647, 653 
with polarized light, 647, 64S 
yam, 663 
Starch grains, aggregates of, 645 

crystalline structure of, 648 
deportment with polarized 

light of, 647, 648 
forms of, 645 
hilum of, 647 
size of, 646 
Starches, analytical key to, 649 

commercial, 643 
Stegmata, 23, 27 

Steinbusch's diastase method for flour, 55 
Stele, 40 
Stem, 38 
Stems, aerial, 39 
annual, 39 
perennial, 40 
subterranean, 43 
Stephanie-Kaffee, 436 
Sterculiacecp, 442 
Stigma, 32 
Stomata, 21, 29 

water, 29 
Stone cells, 21 
Strawberry, 343 

leaves, 471 
preserves, 34S 
String-beans, 238 
Style, 32 
Suberin, 21 
Substage condenser, 7 
diaphragm, 6 
Subterranean stems, 43 
Sugar, cane, 25 

invert, 25 
Sugar sorghum, 103 
Sugars, 25 
Sulphuric acid, 10 
Sultan coffee, 434 
Sunflower, 194 
Surface sections, 13 
Swedish continental coffee, 264, 436 
Sweet chocolate, 448 



Sweet clover, 273 

flag, 608 

vernal grass, 273 

woodruff, 273 
Sweet-potato starch, 665 
Swiss pine, 316 

Tacca starch, 667 
Tacca piinialifida, 667 
Taccacece, 6(^ 
Tahiti arrowroot, 667 
Tangential sections, 12 
Tannins, 26 
Tare, 251 
Tarragon, 617 
Tartary buckwheat, 138 
Tea, 452 

Caucasian, 481 

exhausted, 456 

facing of, 456 

foreign leaves in, 457 

fruit, 456 

lie, 456 

mineral make weights in, 456 

stems, 456 

substitutes, miscellaneous, 483 
Tenebrio m alitor, 50 

ohscurus, 50 
Tenebroides mauritaincus, 50 
Tenistrcemiacecc, 452, 467 
Testa, 37 

Theobroma Cacao, 442 
Thlaspi arvense, 186, 192 
Thyme, 615 
Thymus vulgaris, 615 
Tik, tikor, or tikur flour, 662 
Tilletia Caries, 166 
joetens, 166 
IcEvis, 166 
Sccalis, 166 
Tritici, 166 
Tinea granella, 50 
Tissues, 20 

epidermal, 21 
Tobacco, 486 
Tobasco allspice, 526 
Tomato, 410 

catsup, 320, 412 
Tonka bean, 273 
Tonquin bean, 273 
Tori, 188 

Tous les mois arrowroot, 662 
Tracheae, 22 
Tracheids, 22 
Transpiration, 28 
Travencore starch, 662 
Treacle mustard, 192 
Treatment with iodine, 16 

with oil solvents, 16 
with reagents, 15 
Tribolium confnsum, 50 

jerriigineum, 50 
Trigonella Foenum-Grcecnm, 259 



700 



INDEX. 



Trilicum monococcum, 76 
Polonicum, 65 
sativum var. compactum, 65 
var. dicoccum, 75 
var. durum, 65 
var. Spelta, 73, 653 
var. turgidum, 65, 653 
var. vulgare, 65, 653 
Tritonia aurea, 632 
Tropcpolacece, 640 , 

Tropceolum majus, 640 
Truffles, 420 

false, 422 
French, 420 
German, 421 
Hanover, 421 
Perigord, 420 
white, 422 
Tuber cestivum, 421 
brumale, 420 

var. Melauospermum, 420 
Tubers, 43, 414 

used as vegetables, 414 
Turkish hazelnut, 309 
Turmeric, 602 
Turn-table, 6 
Turnip, 419 
Turpentine, 10, 24, 26 
Tylenchus scandens, 50 
Typhonium sp., 669 

Umbelliferce, 158, 159, 418, 549 
Umbelliferous fruits used as spices, 549 
analytical key to, 551 
comparative histology of, 550 
Ungarischer Kaffee, 436 
Ustilagiuecr, 165 
Ustilago Avencp, 166 

Carbo, 166 

Maidis, 166 

nuda, 166 

Tritici, 166 

Zece, 166 

Vaccaria parvi flora, 145, 151 
Vaccinium Arctostaphylos, 481 
Canadense, 370 
macrocarpon, 366 
Myrtillus, 370, 480 
Pennsylvanicum, 370 
Vitis-Idaa, 366 
Vanilla, 573 

extracts, 578 
ground, 577 
Vanilla aromatica, 574 

Guyanensis, 573, 578 
inodora, 574 
palmartim, 573, 579 
phi ni folia, 573 
pompona, 573, 578 
Vanillon, 578 
Vascular bundles, 22 
\'egetables, 401 



Vessels, annular, 22 

reticulated, 22 
scalariform, 22 
spiral, 22 
Vetch, hairy, 252 
spring, 251 
winter, 252 
Vicia Faba, 250 
hirsiita, 252 
sativa, 251 
villosa, 252 
\'igiia Catjaiig, 247 
Sinensis, 247 
Vitacecc, 382 
7///5 a-slivalis, 382 
Labrusca, 382 
rotundijolia, 382 
vinifera, 382 

var. apyrena, 382 
Vogl's alcohol-hydrochloric acid test of 
flour, 53 
naphthylene-bluc method for flour, 



Waage's test of mace, 541 
Walnut, black, 298 

English, 296 

European, 295 
Walnuts, 295 
Watch-glasses, 7 
Water stomata, 29 
Watermelon, 408 
Wax, 21 
Wa.x-palm, 292 
Waxes, 26 
Weed seeds, 145 
Weevil, granary 50 

rice, 50 
West India arro\\root, 660 
Wheat, 65 

bran, 71, 96 

dwarf, 65 

English, 65 

flour, 70 

germs, 71 

glass, 65 

gluten, 72 

hard, 65 

hedge-hog, 65 

macaroni, 65 

middlings, 71 

one-grained, 76 

Polish, 65 

screenings, 145 

spring, 65 

starch, 653 

winter, 65 

worm, 50 
White lupine, 255 

mustard, 176 
pepper, 508 
decorticated, 509 
ground, 508 



INDEX. 



701 



Whole-wheat products, 70 
Wild carrot, 158 

oats, III, 145, 146 
Williams' arrowroot, 667 
Willow herb leaves, 459 

leaves, 461 
Windsor bean, 250 
Winter cress, 193 

vetch, 252 

wheat, 65 
Wistaria leaves, 475 
Wistaria Sinensis, 475 
Wood, 22, 38, 41 

of Angiosperms, 42 

of Gymnosperms, 42 
Woods, microscopic characters of, 42 
Woody roots, 45 

stems, 40 
Wormwood, 619 



Xanti currants, 382, 3S5 
Xylem, 22, 40 
Xylol, 10, 26 

balsam, 19 

Yam starch, 663 
Yellow foxtail, 124 
lupine, 253 
Yucca gloriosa, 670 

Zea Mays, 86, 632, 651 

Zedoary, 605 

Zest, 70 

Zingiber Cassumunar, 600 

Cemenda, 600 

Mioga, 600 

officinale, 599 

Zerumhet, 600 
Zingiheracea, 542, 599, 602, 605, 606, 662 















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